Organic Farming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 7500 words

Organic Farming - Essay Example The majority of the studies have concluded that organic farming and the food produced this way, providing it is properly monitored, is beneficial to the environment and to the consumer. However, the industry is not experiencing the growth that was forecast in the early days of development. If organic farming is so important, why is it still considered a fad and not become a way of life Is organic farming as important and efficient as its proponents suggest Little research has been directed at this dilemma. The scope of this report is to investigate the nature, structure, business, and legal aspect of Organic Farming, and to ascertain the validity of the claims made as to its importance as a preferable and sustainable source in the food and product chain. The objective is to ascertain why organic farming has not become an important issue to the consumer, and action can be taken to address this situation. To provide an answer to the hypothesis our research focuses on the following areas: - To give a balanced view to our study, we also look at the international aspect of the industry, in terms of its size and market share. Our intention is that this study will complement and add value to the existing research on the subject matter. In an effort to provide a logical ... To provide an answer to the hypothesis our research focuses on the following areas: - The ethics of Organic Farming, to ascertain whether the claims made are valid or not. The industry itself, in an effort to gauge the its marketing effectiveness, how it manages the risk element, and the domestic and international size of the industry. The applicable laws, standards, and labelling requirement imposed upon the industry. How the Organic industry can achieve a more effective program for educating the consumer in relation to the benefits and value of its products. To give a balanced view to our study, we also look at the international aspect of the industry, in terms of its size and market share. Our intention is that this study will complement and add value to the existing research on the subject matter. Overview In an effort to provide a logical progression for the paper, a brief history of the industry and its methods are outlined in chapter two. In the third chapter we concentrate upon the business aspect of the industry and its impact, both national and globally, before we move the to discuss the ethics of organic production in chapter four. The current laws, standards, and labelling upon the producers are reviewed in chapter five before we analyze the methods by which the industry currently educates the industry the consumer, and this leads us to the conclusion of our study in chapter, where appropriate recommendations will be outlined. Chapter 2 Background To provide for an better understanding of the substantial amount of research and debate that surrounds Organic Farming and the content of these papers, it is necessary to understand the origins of the industry, and the methods used and systems of

Films and American Popular Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Films and American Popular Culture - Essay Example This article is relevant to my topic, because it analyzes the negative effects of the mainstreaming of rap music on the goals of rappers. Blair showed concern for the commercialization of rap music, because commercialization has historically benefitted white firms more and diluted the genuineness of black rap music. He narrated the history of rap in the U.S. He argued that Marxian hegemony theory can best explain how mainstream black rap has become a tool for the elite to propagate their own interests and goals. This is a good article, because it explores the theoretical underpinnings of commercializing black rap. It directly answers the research question also on the challenges of rap music. Blair’s findings that commercialization is not an absolute good for black rappers contradicts the implications of the findings of Hunnicutt and Andrews, because in their study, black rappers use mainstream music to broaden their prominence and audiences. Hence, for Hunnicutt and Andrews, m ainstreaming black rap can also indicate the acknowledgement of the invisible voices of low-income, young, black men. Deflem, M. (2001). Rap, rock and censorship: Popular culture and the technologies of justice. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Law and Society Association, Chicago, May 27-30, 1993. Retrieved March 12, 2011, from http://www.cas.sc.edu/socy/faculty/deflem/zzcens97.htm The source came from a paper presented at the annual meeting of the Law and Society Association, Chicago, May 27-30, 1993, so it is trusted as a scholarly article. This source is relevant, because it examines how popular music has been put on trial, because of its deviant messages. Deflem reviewed literature on music censorship and its effects on the development of rap music and other forms of popular music. Findings demonstrated that the law has been used to regulate social processes and institutions, but the history of music censorship demonstrated that the law and law enforcement could not significantly impact and limit musical expressions, mainly because of the First Amendment protection. The strength of this article is that it answers both research questions. Its weakness is its focus on the legal history of music censorship. This article has the same findings as Blair, in that dominant social institutions and tools are being used to limit or crush the social, economic, cultural, and political messages of black rap music. Hunnicutt, G. & Andrews, K. H. (2009).Tragic narratives in popular culture: Depictions of homicide in rap music. Sociological Forum, 24 (3), 611-630. The source came from a peer-reviewed journal, so it is trusted as a scholarly article. It is important to the research, because it answers the question about the goals of rap music. They explored homicide themes in rap lyrics across the period 1989–2000 and used the framework of cultural criminology. Their sampling included 360 titles, where they took the first top 30 songs for each year. Find ings showed three categories: 1) exaltation of killing, 2) moralizing tales about the destruction of violent death and the need for change in society, and ? or 3) homicide used as a figure of speech for being a â€Å"bigger† or more popular rapper. Some songs cautioned about the consequences of leading a criminal life, while others remarked on the power structure, and situations of preserving respect, zero tolerance, and vengeance. Homicide is also surprisingly gendered, with men killing men. The

Steps in the Medical Billing Process Essay Example for Free

Steps in the Medical Billing Process Essay The medical billing process and all of the functions that pertain to it are the responsibilities of the medical insurance specialist. It addresses all tasks that will be performed by the administrative staff members during the medical billing process. These functions are typically handled by front office staff members such as the receptionist (registration) and scheduling. Here are ten steps that will be explained which are the responsibility of the medical the medical insurance specialist. Step 1: Preregister patients * There are two main tasks that are involved when patients are at the preregistration period of their initial visit. These tasks include scheduling and bringing up to date any appointments that they may have. Step 2: Establish financial responsibility for visits * This is a very important step because it involves the determining of who is financially responsible for the visit. It also is used to establish what services may be covered under the type of insurance they have, along with payment options plan options if any, and what types may be available to the patient. Step 3: Check in patients * This step is used to check in patients, this is also the point at which new patients will provide information about themselves. A complete and detailed demographic review of their medical information will be collected at this time by the front desk. When returning patients arrive, they are asked to review the information and provide changes, if any. Step 4: Check out patients * The check-out procedure follows when the patient is done and ready to leave, once the physician and has given the patient their diagnosis and other procedures are complete. This is also the step in the visit where all expenses of the visit are tallied and the patient is brought to awareness of the amount owed in their ledger. Step 5: Review coding compliance * This area is formatted so that all official requirements are met. Meaning all official guidelines that are assigned to the codes will be followed to their standard purpose. Checking for errors when codes are assigned once diagnosis and procedures are selected is critical at this time so the patient will able to understand their charges. Step 6: Check billing compliance * Most medical practices have a standard set of fees listed, and each visit is related to a specific procedure code. Although each code is not necessarily billable, there are separate fees associated with each of the codes that are. Knowing the codes and the procedure that goes with it is important so that the correct charges are applied and the guidelines are still being followed. Step 7: Prepare and transmit claims * A claim is meant to communicate any information about the patient diagnosis given by their physician, it may also be used for the reimbursement of services that have been rendered. Most practices prepare the claim and send them off electronically. Step 8: Monitor payer adjudication * Here all procedures are listed and monitored, and any unpaid charges are explained. The codes on the payment transactions are viewed to make sure they match the on the claim form, and the payment listed for each procedure is correct in accordance to the contract with the payer Step 9: General patient statements * This procedure breaks down what bills will be covered by the insurance plan and what bills are expected to be covered by the patient. It will provide the patient with the service dates for each fee, and when and how much they are expected to pay for the services. Step 10: Follow up patient payments and handle collections * Patient medical records and financial records are filed and retained in accordance to the medical practice’s policy. They are regularly reviewed and analyzed to see if their financial responsibilities have been met. Federal and State regulations govern what documents are to be kept, and the amount of time. Reference Part 1: Chapter 1 Working with Medical Insurance and Billing pp. 16-21

An Inquiry Into Pigou And Welfare Economics Economics Essay

An Inquiry Into Pigou And Welfare Economics Economics Essay Arthur Cecil Pigou (1877-1959) was among the last in the long line of classical economists associated with the Cambridge School. Pigou first entered Kings College, Cambridge on a Minor Scholarship in History and Modern Languages (1896). Observing his palpable brilliance, Alfred Marshall and Henry Sidgwick together encouraged him to pour his academic vigour into the study of political economy (Collard, 1981). Although significantly influenced by Henry Sidgwick, Pigou was foremost Marshalls disciple and is often considered the embodiment and extension of Marshall himself (Walker, 1989). Like Marshall, Pigou was attracted to the practical value of economics and believed the main purpose of learning economics was to be able to see through the bogus economic arguments of politicians (Champernowne, 1959: 264); he believed economics to be an instrument for social betterment not intellectual gymnastics. The numerous works by Pigou cover various fields of economic thought. Pigous marked interest in how government policy could increase national well-being? is apparent throughout his work and led him to invented much of modern public finance especially arguments and rationale for government intervention in the economy (Pressman, 1999). Furthermore, his notable contribution, Economics of Welfare (1932) occupies a unique position in the history of economic thought and has earned him recognition as the father of modern welfare economics (Groenewegen, 2003). A study into Pigous writings on the economics of welfare requires one to be selective due to the wide-ranging scope of topics that may be covered; this paper will therefore concentrate on the theoretical backbone of Pigous work and aim to analyse different critiques of his theory of welfare in Section I. Section II will consider the foundations of and influences on Pigous work and explore criticisms of a lack of originality in his writ ings. Finally, in Section III, we will investigate the Pigous position on government intervention and analyse his suggested policy prescriptions. SECTION I Welfare economics is concerned to investigate the dominant influence through which the economic welfare of the world, or of a particular country, is likely to be increased. The hope of those who pursue it is to suggest lines of action or non-action on the part of the State or of private persons that might foster such influences (Pigou 1951: 287) Welfare economics is a normative subject, distinct from positive economics. Whilst the theoretical elements of positive economics provide theorems that can be tested, normative economics and the propositions of welfare economics have altogether a very different content (Graff, 1957: 2). The difference between normative and positive theory becomes apparent when we attempt to determine whether welfare actually increases or not; analysis of a positive theory requires testing of its conclusions which are clearly observable, conversely to test a normative theory of welfare one must look to test its assumptions rather than conclusions since welfare is not an observable quantity. Thus the assumptions attached to a normative theory must be carefully and thoroughly scrutinised and the credibility of a theory of welfare depends on how realistic and relevant its assumptions are (Graff, 1957: 3). This section will, in turn analyse the major assumptions made by Pigou for the development of his co ncepts of economic welfare and national dividend which are key to his theory. Economic Welfare Pigou defined economic welfare subjectively as quantities of satisfaction or states of consciousnessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[with] psychic returns of satisfaction, (Pigou 1926: 10). Recognising that subsequent investigation into the causes that could affect welfare would be impracticable, he limits the scope of the inquiry to that part of social welfare that can be brought directly or indirectly into relation with the measuring-rod of money (Pigou 1926: 11). To justify the restrictions on his scope of elements compiling the social welfare he postulates that since a persons income is an observable money value, it could be inferred that, under certain conditions, people could enjoy a level of material welfare that could be purchased by their income (Mishan, 1969). The connection between increased income and the other elements of welfare is much harder to define therefore Pigou explicitly recognises that since economic welfare is only a part of welfare as a wholeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦so that a given change in economic welfare will seldom synchronise with an equal welfare as a whole (Pigou, 1926: 12). Thus, although a change in economic welfare may not measure the change in total welfare, it may always affect the change therefore Pigou concludes that economic welfare and total welfare are positively related (Durlauf and Blume, 2008). UTILITY DEBATE? Doesnt he assume something stupid about utility interpersonal utility or something? National Dividend The conception of the National Dividend is not an academic toy, but a practical instrument of great power designed for service in the concrete solution of social problems (Pigou, 1912: 493) In order to predict the effects of policies on material welfare at the aggregate level, an aggregate measure was required. Pigou identified the national dividend as the appropriate aggregate measure suggesting that economic causes act on the economic welfare of any country, not directly, but through the making and using of the objective counterpart of economic welfare which the economists call the national dividend (Pigou, 1926: 31). The national dividend is described as the flow of goods and services annually produced after maintaining capital intact and is a key concept for Pigous analyses of how policies or institutions affect economic welfare (Scott, 1984: 59). Pigou outlines the two criteria for detecting improvements in social welfare which reflect the importance of this key concept to his theory of welfare; firstly increases in the value of national dividend, provided the share for the poor is not thereby reduced, will result in an increase in social welfare. Secondly, transfe rs from the rich to the poor without any reduction in the national dividend will also yield higher social welfare (Pigou, 1926). Several critics have voiced opposition to Pigous definition of national dividend specifically on the issue of maintaining capital intact.  [1]  He states that if the quantity of every unit of a countrys capital stock remains unchanged over a certain period, then even is the money value has increased/decreased, the total capital stock has been exactly maintained. He argues that changes in the money value of the stock due to general price changes or changes in the rates of interest are irrelevant to the national dividend (Scott, 1984: 60). Only a decline in the physical quantity of capital has to be made good (or replaced) with new capital of the same value (provided the valuation is made when the deterioration actually takes place) and depreciation due to interest rates or price changes are irrelevant (Pigou, 1926: 46). The national income in any period is therefore the sum of consumption and gross investment minus that portion of gross investment necessary to maintain capital int act (Scott, 1984; Pigou, 1926). Myint (1948) highlights the inadequacies of transposing this concept of maintaining capital intact (which is essentially a physical level of analysis) to derive the value of capital from expected value of income yielded (essentially a subjective level of analysis) by merely making good the physical wear and tear (Myint, 1948: 174). He finds fault with the fact that depreciation (due to obsolescence  [2]  ) must be allowed for even if capital goods are in perfect condition. This issue also sparked a heated debate between Hayek (1941) and Pigou (1941) in which Hicks (1942) also intervened. Hayek attacked Pigou on this point stating, what is meant by maintaining capital intact [according to Pigou] consists in effect of the suggestion that for this purpose we should disregard obsolescence [whether it is due to foreseeable or unforeseeable causes] and require merely that such losses of value of the existing stock of capital goods be made good as are due to physical wear and tear (Haye k, 1941: 276). Hayek finds Pigous procedure neither useful theoretically nor in actual practice (Hayek, 1941: 276). The root of the disagreement lies in their different conceptions of depreciation; while Pigou maintains that only a decline in the present value of capital due to factors which affect the expected quantity is relevant whilst Hayek argues the the real problem of maintaining capital intact arises not after such losses have been made, but when the entrepreneur plans his investment (Hayek, 1941: thus a decline in expected quantity will count as depreciation regardless of whether it is due to factors affecting expected quantity or prices (Hill, 1999: 2). While Hayeks biting criticism seemingly undermines Pigous conception of national dividend, Scott (1984) contends both arguments are in fact sound and it is the purpose for which the definition is of critical importance; whilst Pigou was concerned with net social income, Hayek was referring essentially to individual people o r firms. READ HICKS ADDITION TO THE DEBATE AND ADD IN WHAT HE SAYS ABOUT THE DIFFERENCE IN PURPOSES FOR THE CONCEPT. SECTION II When a man sets out upon any course of inquiry, the object of his search may be either light or fruit either knowledge for its own sake or knowledge for the sake of good things to which it leads, (Pigou, 1926: 3) Pigou is widely considered the father of modern welfare economics and the basic concepts of early welfare theory are attributed to his work, Economics of Welfare (1926). However, there are commentators who speculate that no matter how innovative Pigou may have been, many of his major theoretical contributions to welfare analysis lacked originality and were based on pre-Marshallian concepts; ODonnell (1979) implies Henry Sidgwick is a major influence who is not attributed sufficient credit. ODonnell (1979) argues that as a firm follower of Marshall, Pigou utilised his marginal analyses of market processes. However, they differed on their beliefs in the ability of competitive markets and economic freedom to stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty; Marshall was confident that competitive markets, left alone, would lead to efficient allocation and that government intervention would create so many disincentives that it may cause more harm than good (Walker, 1989). Conversely Pigou argued that fairness is only to be achieved through extensive government intervention. Moreover, when Pigou (1926, 1928) sought to formalise the problems of market failure and the appropriate government solutions, he turned to Sigdwicks earlier propositions on government intervention. More than half a century before Pigou, Sidgwick and J. S. Mill initiated the transition from the non-interventionist approach of the classical tradition to the more interventionist orientation that characterised neoclassical welfare theory and influenced Pigous theory of welfare (Medema, 2007). Subsequently it is argued that in defining welfare and the general qualifications for a welfare criterion (wherein the similarities between basic welfare considerations of Pigou and Sidgwick are obvious), Pigou is not original (ODonnell, 1979). He was, however, genuinely innovative in introducing the terms Marginal Social Net Product (MSNP) and Marginal Private Net Product (MPNP); although Sidgwick (1897) expressed similar conclusions about divergences between private and social benefits marginal considerations were not part of his analysis and his generalised concept was not as concise as Pigous (ODonnell, 1979). Therefore, whilst Pigous contribution to welfare economics is undeniable, he is criticised for developing what is essentially a synthesis of ideas and analyses from Marshall and Sidgwick. Yet, if we again invoke the purpose for his inquiry and his beliefs about the practical use of economics, the fruits of his contribution yielded an expansive literature on not only welfare economics but also public finance and environmental economics for which he is undeniably responsible; the purpose isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that the fabric of theory shall be a yielding garment, fitting the varied and complex reality of economic life as closely as is demanded by the criterion that the conclusions to which the theory leads shall be both useful and general (Young, 1913: 686). SECTION III The working of self-interest is generally beneficent, not because of some natural coincidence between the self-interest of each and the good of all, but because human institutions are arranged so as to compel self-interest to work in directions in which it will be beneficent (Cannan in Pigou, 1926: 130) We move now to the subject of government intervention in the economy. In his relatively unknown essay on State Action and Laissez-Faire Pigou stated the real question is not whether the State should act or not, but on what principles, in what degree and over what departments of economic life its action should be carried on (Pigou in Medema, 2009: 65). In Economics of Welfare (1926) Pigou controversially advocates the need for government intervention in the form of taxes and bounties to correct for market failures and our defective telescopic faculty. External Economies In Economics of Welfare (1926) Pigou originated the innovative theoretical distinction between social and private benefits and costs, illustrating how private production costs for a firm do not necessarily reflect total social costs of production. This analysis formed the basis for much of the analysis in modern environmental economics (Myint 1948). He states that when value of MSNP (marginal physical product of the factor as appropriated by the producer * market price of product) is greater than MSNP (total of products and services from employment of the additional factor no matter to whom they may accrue) external economies exist and the government must intervene in the market to ensure the industry contracts the optimum output may be reached and economic welfare may thus be maximised (Pigou, 1926). Coase what coase said economists have tended to overestimate the advantages of government intervention and that such intervention may not actually be desirable in certain situations? Monopolies Pigou says that monopolies are bad and that governments should intervene to make sure they dont overrun? Something like this? But people argue against that and say that this is not good and his assumptions are wrong! CONCLUSION General optimum and national dividend are major elements that constitute his theory of welfare. Section I National Dividend National Dividend and General Optimum National Dividend he outlines the national dividend which is defined as _______. Is very important because it is the measure he outlines as the aggregate indicator of welfare. Discussion Hayek criticised his conception of the national dividend because of his assumption of Maintaining capital intact stating that __________________ General Optimum and Criterion for welfare maximisation He says that anything that increases the national dividend, so long as it doesnt reduce the share going to the poor will increase total welfare and anything that increases the share of the poor so long as it doesnt affect the national dividend, will also increase welfare. Discussion Buchanan (http://www.heinonline.org.ezproxy.webfeat.lib.ed.ac.uk/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/jlecono2id=1size=2collection=journalsindex=journals/jlecono#126) outlines the difference between Pigous optimum and Paretos optimum ODonnell criticises Pigou for lack of originality, claiming that he has basically created a synthesis of Pre-Marshallian ideas and Marshallian analysis (the only thing original being his contribution of MSNP and MPNP). Myint criticises Pigou for trying to impose Marshalls physical analysis onto what should be a subjective level of analysis: since welfare theory, as argued by graff, is a normative theory. Section II External Effects Pigou basically says that private firms do not always take into account the Monopolies MONOPOLIES 6. I do not propose to say very much in this paper about the welfare economics of monopoly and imperfect competition, for this is altogether too large a subject to be capable of useful treat- ment on the scale here available. A very large part of the estab- lished theory of imperfect competition falls under the head of welfare economics, and it is actually much the strongest part of the theory which does so. Considered as a branch of positive economics, the theory of imperfect competition is even now not very convincing; the assumption that the individual producer has a clear idea of the demand curve confronting him has been justifiably questioned, and the presence of intractable elements of oligopoly in most markets has been justifiably suspected. When it is considered as a branch of welfare economics, the theory of imperfect competition has a much clearer status. Oligopoly and monopolistic competition fall into their places as reasons for the inequality between price and marginal c ost, whose consequences are then a most fertile field for study along welfare lines. It is perhaps rather to be regretted that modern theories of imperfect competition have not been cast more overtly into this form; for the general apparatus of welfare economics would have made it possible to state some of the most important pro- positions in a more guarded way than usual. Take, for example, the very important question of the optimum number of firms in an imperfectly competitive industry, which is so near the centre of modern discussion. Since (ex hypothesi) the different firms are producing products which are economicaly distinguishable, the question is one of those which falls under the heading of our third set of optimum conditions-the totl conditions; we have to ask whether a reduction in the number of products would be conducive to a movement towards the optimum. Suppose then that a particular firm is closed down. The loss involved im its cessation is measured by the compensati on which would have to be given to consumers to make up for their loss of the opportunity to consume the missing product, plus the compensation which would have to be given to producers to make up for the excess of their earnings in this use over what they could earn in other uses. The loss is therefore measured by Marshalls Surplus (Consumers Surplus 1 plus Producers Surplus). Under conditions of perfect competition, this loss is a net loss. For when the factors are transferred to other uses, they will have to be scattered about at the margins of those uses; and (since the earnings of a factor equal the value of its marginal product) the additional production made possible by the use of the factors in these new places is equal in value to the earnings of the factors (already accounted for). Under perfect competition, the marginal productivity law ensures that there is no producers surplus generated at the new margins; while, since the marginal unit of any commodity is worth no more than what is paid for it, there can be no consumers surplus either. Thus there is nothing to set against the initial loss; there cannot be a movement towards the optimum if the number of products is reduced. But if competition is imperfect, there is something to set on the other side. The earnings of a factor are now less than the value of its marginal product by an amount which varies with the degree of monopolistic exploitation; and therefore the increment to production which can be secured by using the factors at other margins is worth more than the earnings of the factors. There is a producers surplus, even at the margin, and this producers surplus may outweigh the initial loss. The general condition for a particular firm to be such that its existence is compatible with the optimum is that the sum of the consumers and producers surpluses generated by its activities must be greater than the producers surplus which would be generated by employing its factors (and exploiting them) elsewhere. The rule usually given is a special case of this general rule. If entry to the industry is free, price equals average cost, and the producers surplus generated by the firm as a whole can be neglected. If the products of the different firms are very cl ose substitutes, or merely distinguished by irrational pre- ferences, consumers surplus can perhaps be neglected as well. With these simplifications, the number of firms in an impe competitive industry is always excessive, so long as price is greater than marginal cost anywhere in the industry. (Or, if we can retain the identity of price with average cost, the number of firms is excessive until average cost is reduced to a minimum.) These, however, are simplifications; it is not always true that the number of firms in an imperfectly competitive industry is excessive, though very often it may be. Before recommending in practice a policy of shutting down redundant firms, we ought to be sure that the full condition is satisfied; and we ought to be very sure that the discarded factors will in fact be transferred to more productive uses. In a world where the most the economist can hope for is that he will be listened to occasionallY, that is not always so certain. In the absence of costs of movement the allocation of resources by competitive markets achieves universally equal marginal private net products. However, the production of ideal output requires equality of marginal social net products. Where private and social net products diverge, there is a prima facie case for reallocation of resources (Economics of welfare page 136) The Economics of Welfare Pigous major work, Wealth and Welfare (1912) and Economics of Welfare (1920), developed Alfred Marshalls concept of externalities (see Pigou, 1920), costs imposed or benefits conferred on others that are not taken into account by the person taking the action. Pigou attributed welfare gains to the greater marginal utility a dollar of income had for the poor compared to the rich; a transfer of income from rich to poor increased total utility that could also be defined as increased quality of life. Pigou also argued that welfare gains came from improving the quality of the work force through changes in the distribution of income or by improved working conditions. He argued that the existence of externalities was sufficient justification for government intervention. The reason was that if someone was creating a negative externality, such as pollution, he would engage in too much of the activity that generated the externality. Someone creating a positive externality, say, by educating himself and thus making himself more interesting to other people, would not invest enough in his education because he would not perceive the value to himself as being as great as the value to society. To discourage the activity that caused the negative externality, Pigou advocated a tax on the activity. To encourage the activity that created the positive externality, he advocated a subsidy. These are now called Pigovian (or Pigovian) taxes and subsidies. Let us now consider two excerpts that typify Pigous social policy, mentioned above: One person A, in the course of rendering some service, for which payments is made, to a second person B, incidentally also renders services or disservices to other personsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ of such sort that payment cannot be exacted from benefited parties or compensation enforced on behalf of the injured parties (Pigou 1932). It is possible for the State to remove the divergence [between private and social net product] through bounties and taxes (Pigou 1932). In the Economics of Welfare, Pigou says that his aim is to ascertain how far the free play of self-interest, acting under the existing legal system, tends to distribute the countrys resources in the way most favorable to the production of a large national dividend, and how far it is feasible for State action to improve upon natural tendencies. He starts by referring to optimistic followers of the classical economists who have argued that the value of production would be maximized if the government refrained from any interference in the economic system and the economic arrangements were those which came about naturally (Pigou 1932). Pigou goes on to say that if self-interest does promote economic welfare, it is because human institutions have been devised to make it so. He concludes: But even in the most advanced States there are failures and imperfections there are many obstacles that prevent a communitys resources from being distributed in the most efficient way. The study of these constitutes our present problem its purpose is essentially practical. It seeks to bring into clearer light some of the ways in which it now is, or eventually may become, feasible for governments to control the play of economic forces in such wise as to promote the economic welfare, and through that, the total welfare, of their citizens as a whole (Pigou 1932). Pigous thoughts are further elucidated: Some have argued that no State action is needed. But the system has performed as well as it has because of State action: Nonetheless, there are still imperfections. it might happen that costs are thrown upon people not directly concerned, through, say, uncompensated damage done to surrounding woods by sparks from railway engines. All such effects must be included-some of them will be positive, others negative elements-in reckoning up the social net product of the marginal increment of any volume of resources turned into any use or place (Pigou 1932) To illustrate this discussion further, let us consider an example: Suppose a paper mill was being planned on a certain river and an economist was given all facts about the river-in-question and told that a paper mill was to be sited so that it could discharge oxygen-consuming waste into the river. Suppose further that the economist was asked to analyze the situation, offer a policy for siting the mill, and comment on the practical aspects of adopting the policy proposal as a general rule. The first approach involves an externality analysis, where the paper mill pollutes the river, imposing an unwanted cost on society, a cost that does not enter the mill owners profit calculations. This is the problem of social cost. Following this line of inquiry, failure to consider the external cost leads to too much paper and too little environmental quality. This economist would be using an analytical framework developed by A. C. Pigou who would argue that pollution generates a social cost that should be dealt with by the central government. He would propose a system of taxes, bounties, and regulations for resolving the problem. Most likely, the economist using this framework would call for some form of effluent taxes or regulation to control the mills discharge. Pigous solution spoke of market failure and the need for a central authority to fine-tune markets so that the appropriate level of pollution would emerge. This approach called for collection of complicated and rapidly changing information, translating the information into a tax or regulation, and imposing the tax or rule on the polluter. In fact, modern environmental economics began with the work of Arthur Pigou, who developed the analysis of externalities. His name is attached to the traditional policy proposal, Pigouvian taxes on polluting activities, equal to the value of the damages. Coases alternative solution Pigous approach came under attack from Lionel Robbins and Frank Knight. The New Welfare Economics that arose in the late 1930s dispensed with much of Pigous analytical toolbox. Later, the Public Choice theorists rejected Pigous approach for its naive benevolent despot assumption. Finally, Nobel Laureate Ronald Coase demonstrated that efficient outcomes could be generated without government intervention when property rights are clearly defined. Coase presents his case in the article The Problem of Social Cost (1960). To explain this alternative let us continue with the paper mill example. There is a second approach likely taken. In this line of thinking the economist considers the paper mill and others who wish to consume or enjoy water quality as part of a competitive market where people bargain for the use of rights to scarce property. This analysis has nothing to do with polluters imposing cost on society, but everything to do with competing demands for use of an asset. If rights to the asset are defined and assigned to members of the river-basin community, then those planning to build the paper mill must bargain with the rightholders to determine just how much, if any, waste will discharge into the river. If the rights are held by the mill, then the existing communities along the river must bargain with the mill owner for rights to water quality. Again, bargaining determines the amount of discharge to the river. This approach relies on the work of Ronald Coase (1960). Using this framework, an economist might recommend a meeting of the mill owners and others who have access to the river. After organizing the parties, negotiations would ensue. If existing river users owned water-quality rights, the mill would have to buy the rights in order to discharge specified amounts of waste. If the mill had the right to pollute, existing river users would have to buy water quality from the mill, paying the mill to limit its discharges. In other words, Pigouvian taxes do embody the important principle that polluters should pay for the damages they inflict on society. But in both law and economics, a more conservative analysis has gained popularity. Legal scholar Ronald Coase argued that taxes and regulation might be unnecessary, since under some circumstances polluters and those harmed by pollution could engage in private negotiation to determine the appropriate compensation. While Pigous examples of externalities often involved simultaneous harms to large numbers of people, Coases examples tended to be localized, individual nuisances, where one persons behavior disturbed the immediate neighbors. The image of environmental externalities as localized nuisances serves to trivialize the real problems of widespread, collective threats to health and nature. Creative alternative readings of Coase have been suggested at times, but the dominant interpretation of his work has provided an intellectual basis for the retreat fr om regulation. Comparison of Pigous and Coases approaches Evidence of the record of Coases intellectual influence is seen in the count of citations to his 1960 article, which are shown in Yardley (1977). The citation data of Coases (1960) The Problem of Social Cost and Pigous (1932) The Economics of Welfare are superimposed on a count of Federal Register pages for the same years. The data mapping suggests several things. First, Pigous influence on academics seems to operate at a steady state. There is no evidence that Pigovians were responding to the growth of regulation occurring around them. The Coase citations indicate the reverse. References to his ideas seem to be a reaction to th

Movie Analysis Of Leadership Development

Movie Analysis Of Leadership Development You gain strength, courage and confidence by every experience in which you really stop to look fear in the face. You must do the thing you think you cannot do. -Eleanor Roosevelt The above stated lines speak up the spirit of Norma Rae and the power of a leader. The quotation highlights the two main points shown in the film; the strength and courage of a woman and the idea of justice and equal rights for all. The film shows how an oppressed, young American lady who in initial stage did not had courage to fight against intolerable environment, converts into a charismatic leader and helps up bringing the whole textile labour society. The Film: The film Norma Raes release came in an era when labour unions were falling out of favour with the American public and politicians appeared eager to criticize organized labour for harming American competitiveness in the global marketplace. Norma Rae (played by actress Sally Field) focuses on the experiences of an individual who lived in Roanoke Rapids, NC and played a leadership role in the struggle to win union representation from the J.P. Stevens Company. Her real name was Crystal Lee. Crystal Lee had grown up in a family of mill workers, laboured in a variety of jobs, including textiles, and then, rather suddenly, discovered an interest in unions when she heard the speech of an organizer who had come to Roanoke Rapids. She successfully demonstrated that power is not based on title or status; it comes by connecting with people and standing up for what you believe in (Goleman et al, 2002). The movie clearly sends out the message that strong will power, hard work and determination can surely make impossible possible. It substantiates the bonding between a leader and his follower, the importance of such a symbiotic relationship and how the follower can become a leader too by synergizing bonds. It is a live commentary on the inherent leadership potential lying latent in everyone of us and how the environmental factors, situations and a suitable guidance can convert us into a charismatic leader. The movie begins with the loud noise of machines in the mill doing its job and still shots from Ms. Raes life from being an infant to a sad woman, one amongst the 800 mill-workers; a cog in the cotton mill machinery who is not enjoying life, but is only struggling with it to survive. Workers are portrayed as being machines themselves making machines in unceasing eight hour shifts and trying to come to terms with this machine age .Norma Raes mother facing the problem of temporary deafness due to the unbearable noise produced by the machines in the mill. These pathetic working environmental conditions with short and few breaks in-between the working hours, no windows, no proper working conditions and poor management played a major role in transforming Norma Rae into a leader. To begin with, she is a young, hard working, energetic lady with no decided goals. She is a rebel without a cause, unharnessed youth of the age who fearlessly confronts the management. The bosses first tried to hold her by offering a rise in salary by 1$/hr and offering a higher position than others. At first, she plays into their hands, she accepted the offer, but when she was cut off from her people and saw an attitude change in them then she realizes a very important lesson of life that to find strength, one must be with and from the people. Then comes into play Reuben Warshofsky (played by Ron Leibman), an urban union leader who knows the labour laws and the legal system and just needs an insider to materialize his goals from within, who could support him in serving the good cause of publicising the labour union and telling the benefits of it. With Ruebens coordination and learning, Norma slowly transforms into a strong and confident leader. This symbiotic conventional mentor-protà ©gà ©e bond develops into an affective partnership where Norma and Reuben spread awareness and overcome personal and work related obstacles together. Reubens authority, knowledge and wittiness to handle situations helped making a path and strategy to confront the problems. Norma Rae had been marketed to the American public as a story about a female Rocky and as a film that exuded feminist spirit while not overtly preaching feminism. Leadership Styles: There are various leadership styles reflected by various characters in the film Norma Rae, following theories and styles help us explain them: Leaderships gender perspective Transformational Leadership Authoritarian and Participative leadership Style Contingency Theory and Situational leadership Vision Development Conflicts Social Identity Theory Leaderships gender perspective: Because I am a woman, I must make unusual efforts to succeed. If I fail, no one will say, She doesnt have what it takes. They will say, Women dont have what it takes. (Clare Boothe Luce) There is a cultural ideal in most societies that generally men are the leaders. This ideal persists despite the fact that women in many nations have participated in governing the whole nation operating at the topmost positions like Prime Minister and President (Table 1). There still seems to be, in some circles, a belief in some societies that women do not belong in the leadership, and are especially ill-perceived in leadership positions. There still appears to be a commonly held belief that, while women are tolerated in the ranks, many men still believe that leadership in their domain alone. The male centred society has usually associated women with certain specific roles; such taking care of household tasks, looking after children etc. The film Norma Rae tries to evolve such typical and orthodox mindset. The above said sentences can easily be collected from a scene where Normas husband shows anger on her when she used to come late and tries to let her realize her duties towards hou sehold works like washing clothes, cooking food, and looking after kids. But Norma made him realize that she has been working for a great cause and motive and he should understand it. Norma proves it to the whole society that women can not only look after the house and children but also can work, earn, lead and change the system. She also proves that women who are not associated with leadership can be taught and developed to be good leaders. It is truly and beautifully said that: Women have certain characteristics that give them an edge over men in being leaders, like- empathy, and a caring attitude (Heller, 1982). Transformational Leadership: Transformational leadership is a leadership approach that is defined as leadership that creates valuable and positive change in the followers. A transformational leader focuses on transforming others to help each other, to look out for each other, to be encouraging and harmonious, and to look out for the organization as a whole. In this leadership, the leader enhances the motivation, morale and performance of his follower group (source: www.wikepedia.org). This is a leadership style exhibited primarily by Rueben, Norma gradually adopts this style. Transformational Leadership occurs when the leader take a visionary position and inspires others to follow. The essence of transformational leadership lies making the followers understand the goals and inspire them to achieve them (Bass et al, 1994). Like many other leaders Norma used the help of her mentor Rueben to understand various leadership traits. To understand the complexity of the environment Rueben who is the mentor here shares all his knowledge and expertise with his protà ©gà © Norma, to become a better leader. Norma evolves as a leader with the help of her mentor, Rueben. She learnt about how she can help people to fight the inequality and how to make them stand against the prevailing evils in the work environment. She understands the fact that: To lead, one must follow. -Lao Tzu Reuben has better Leadership skills than Norma, but his profession and demands matched while that of Norma didnt. Ruebens strength lies in the fact that he inspires people to come forward and realise their potential. He follows the principle of Leadership Development. Reuben better knows how to use the processes of leadership development, i.e., assessment, challenge and support (Howell et al, 2006). Rueben has a better understanding than Norma about of the psychology of his followers to inspirationally motivate them and intellectually stimulate them (Pierce et al, 2008). He makes Norma and the workers understand the fact that a union is essential for them and thus sets the ball rolling. Norma takes the lead and spreads awareness amongst the workers. Normas leadership style is quite inspired by Rueben and she also grows up into a transformational leader. Norma learned the lesson from Rueben: If you are not the lead dog scenery never changes (Source: LeadershipAdvanceOnline) Authoritarian and Participative leadership style: Authoritarian: This style is used when leaders tell their employees what they want done and how they want it accomplished, without getting the advice of their followers. (Source: www.nwlink.com) Norma is shown as an energetic and hard working character in this film, thus authoritarian characteristic, though in a very small content, is exhibited in her natural characteristics. This style is used when Norma tells her peers working for the formation of the labour society about what they want to be done and how she wants it to be accomplished, without getting the advice from them. This leadership style can even be seen the scene when Norma shouts on one of her peer for not getting the work done on time and she had to spend extra effort on augments than to concentrate on other core tasks like planning and management. This leadership style is primarily exhibited by management of O.P Henley textile mill; the management is too much authoritarian and does not want any employee to raise voice against the odds in the mill. The management misuses its authority to restrict union activities been performed by Norma in the work place. The management is least bothered about the employee care , they just want the work to be done without giving any concerns to the voice, needs and requirements of employees. The management of O.P Henley textile mill seems to deny the truth: The key to successful leadership today is influence, not authority. -Kenneth Blanchard Participative (Democratic): This style involves the leader including one or more employees in the decision making process (determining what to do and how to do it) (Source: http://www.nwlink.com) This leadership style is very much exhibited in the Norma Rae character of the film; in fact the core of the film revolves round this leadership quality. Norma Rae participates in decision making with Rueben. Planning, controlling, pursuing, managing, organizing, and all other tasks are performed by her in a participative manner, either with the peer members of the union supporting group, peer workers or Rueben. An example of participative leadership of Norma could be seen in a scene in which she and the fellow employees wear a large union button in the work setting to speak their fellow workers about joining a union which was protected under the new rules. Norma used to involve and convince people working in the mill to get involved in union formation; she generally used to take inputs from peer workers and Rueben on how to manage tasks. Situational Leadership: Another leadership concept clearly visible from the film Norma Rae is Situational Leadership or the Contingency Theory of Leadership. As per this concept the leadership style is contingent to situations and circumstances (Howell et al, 2006). It is said to be the best style of leadership. The style to be used depends on the readiness level of the people the leader is trying to influence (Pierce et al, 2008). Norma Rae realized the intolerable situation of the textile mill workers were working in, that propelled her to change of the situation and lead the labour society to form a union for their own and for the sake of whole textile labour society. Situational leadership is clearly demonstrated by Norma Rae in the scene when after getting fired from her job in the mill, she mounted a table in her work room and held up a sheet of cardboard with the word UNION marked on it in large letters. She turned around slowly, demonstrating her bold message to the assorted hemmers, terry cutters and packers in the room. As a result of this action, the workers who had been facing the unbearable situations since long, without revolting, were stunned and realized that the time has come to be united and to stand against the management for the common objective of equality and justice, Norma clearly demonstrated her leadership in the odd situation, this scene though silent left a big impact and played a major role in union formation in American textile industry. By demonstrating situational leadership at various instances Norma Rae proved the following definition of leadership: Leadership is the art of getting someone else to do something you want done because he wants to do it Dwight Eisenhower Vision Development: A vision is a guiding image of what success looks like. It answers the question what do you wish to become. (Source www.thepracticeofleadership.net) Norma Rae is a southern textile worker employed in a factory with intolerable working conditions. She was born and brought up in a family of workers who were facing these conditions since long. In the opening scene of the movie, the viewer is immediately introduced to what it might really be like working all day in a textile factory. The operation of the machinery is deafening. At the end of the scene, we discover that is exactly the case as Norma Rae realizes her own mother cannot hear. Norma from her past had a vision of what is prevalent in the environment and needs to be removed, but since she was used to it and was unaware of her latent leadership abilities she was unable to pursue that vision. Rueben made her realize her leadership capabilities and supported her vision to resolve the issues which she and the society was facing since long. To use vision as a strategy, she needed to define three elements-the plan, current state and desired state (Refer appendix 2). It means defin ing where she was now, where she wanted to be in the future and how she was going to get there This concern about the situation gave her the gumption to be the key associate to a visiting labour union organizer. They knew the present situation, they developed a plan and structure to bring as many people together with them as possible. Together, they undertook the difficult, and possibly dangerous, struggle to unionize her factory) and saved the future of many workers working in textile industry. It was their vision which led them to succeed and let them attain their objectives. Normas success which was lead by her vision justifies the following quote: The very essence of leadership is that you have to have a vision. Its got to be a vision you articulate clearly and forcefully on every occasion. You cant blow an uncertain trumpet. -Theodore Hesburgh Conflicts: Dont be afraid of opposition. Remember, a kite rises against; not with; the wind. Hamilton Wright Mabie This is the main idea which Norma Rae seems to be following in the film. Any leader cannot grow without facing conflicts or without fighting the situations against him/her. In the film Norma Rae, Norma also comes across various conflicts while trying to achieve her goal. The first conflict is at her workplace i.e. against the management of O.P. Henley Textile Mill, the mill management never wanted Norma to form a union, and the management was against her since the beginning of union chapter. Norma had to face many conflicts from the management, some examples of it are, the management warned her at various moments that she might lose her job if she continues to raise voice for union in the work place, she was asked why she used workplace telephone in office hours?, she was asked to remove the unions button, she was warned while favouring the Unions notice on the notice board at work place, But Norma continued with her union objectives and kept on publicising the union, its cause and i ts functions to her peers, finally the management called the police chief to take her away to book her on disorderly conduct charges. Norma Rae did not leave calmly. She kicked, twisted, and screamed, and she had to be stuffed into the squad car and kept behind the bars for a night. At her home, being a lady she was expected to cook food, wash clothes, look after the kids, and perform all other household activities, but since she was very much involved in the union activities she could not take out time for all these works, there was a conflict between her and her husband regarding the same on which she reacted aggressively showing her discontent that while she kept busy in work it was the responsibility of him to take care of such tasks. All these conflicts made her stronger to fight for her cause. Social Identity Theory: Social identity theory: leader is picked by followers or chosen to be supported by followers because s/he is most like them. (Source- Slides) Norma Rae is a co-worker of the labours in the O.P Henley textile mills, this is an additional benefit which she enjoys to become a leader of them and for them, as stated in the social identity theory. There is a peer trust relationship between Norma and her followers, followers know that Norma is well aware of the situations and conditions prevalent in the working condition as she is one of them. This trust, respect and belief can be seen when she held up a sheet of cardboard with the word UNION marked on it in large letters, all her followers supported her and stopped working, they knew that what she was doing is for them and for their well being. In an earlier scene we see that Norma was offered a better designation and salary as that of peers, but when she realised the value of social identity she left the designation. Norma knew that without winning the confidence of her peers and without being one of them she would not be able to succeed to reach her destination. She knew the v alue of social identity. Conclusion Norma Rae though a great social transformer, does not depict the characteristics of a very great leader with a big following. In fact, Norma didnt even have any followers as seen from a conventional view. Yet, she achieved and benefited many. She transformed the way labours were treated in the society, depicting a very interesting, unique and a subtle style of leadership. Norma Rae proved that passion and not position is where courage of a great leader to fulfil his vision, comes from. She along with Reuben, achieved her goal of establishing a union, yet facilitated the workers to believe that it was their effort and achievement. The following lines best describe the leadership style of Norma Rae: Go to the people. Learn from them. Live with them. Start with what they know. Build with what they have. The best of leaders when the job is done, when the task is accomplished, the people will say we have done it ourselves. -Lao Tzu Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Vision as a Strategy

The Truth in Art: Vincent Van Goghs Work of Art Essay -- heidegger,

Throughout his argument against aesthetics, Heidegger strongly states he believes in the true â€Å"work of art† and believes that this aesthetic approach goes against this. One artist that Heidegger particularly discusses is Vincent Van Gogh. He uses works of art by Van Gogh in order to give more power to his argument. Through works of art such as Van Gogh’s A Pair of Shoes, Heidegger makes his a distinction between artwork and things. In order to truly analyze the culture of another, he explains how it is essential for the viewer to question what is being depicted in the work and what the purpose may be. Heidegger describes art as a whole through the philosophies of existence and truth. To truly interpret Heidegger’s critic of aesthetics, it is important to know his opinions of true works of art. He has a strong view on the importance art had in history: â€Å"Art is history in the essential sense that it grounds history. Art lets truth originate. Art, founding preserving, is the spring that leaps to the truth of what is, in the work†(Heidegger 75). To give an anecdote to his argument, Heidegger brings up an ancient Greek temple. He explains that it is the temple that first brings everyone together. The temple unifies the community through hardships and times of happiness. The temple primarily provides to things their expression and to the people of the temple, their viewpoint about themselves as a whole. Heidegger believes that over time, the concept of human reality changes. He then explains that art shows this change and helps better explain this transformation of type and style. Great works of art have an impact on the human race during that time period: â€Å"†¦the bringing of work-being into movement and happening. This happens as pr... ...complexity. Instead of seeing just a simple pair of worn shoes, he sees the story of a peasant who works in the fields daily. Heidegger does this by looking past the simplicity and discovering the revelation of what the pair of shoes is in truth. In order to find the full truth, the viewer must picture him or herself in the painting. As it reveals these important truths, the work of art must furthermore rely on the painting’s substance and being that is outside of that particular work of art itself. In closing, just as Heidegger stated in his argument against aesthetics: â€Å"The art work opens up in its own way the Being of beings. The truth of beings happens in the work. In the artwork, the truth of what is has set itself to work. Art is truth setting itself to work†(38). Works Cited Heidegger, Martin. Poetry, Language, Thought. New York: Harper & Row, 1971. Print.

Humas Overcoming Nature Essay -- Nature Society Natural Essays

Humas Overcoming Nature Humans have always tried to exert their control over nature. Throughout history, humans command over nature has wavered from a confidant to a skeptical viewpoint. As time passed, humans believied in their ability to conquer nature slowly diminished to a point where nature ruled without a doubt. Now, in the twentieth century, however, people believe once again that the human population can overcome nature. Up until the sixteenth century, people believed that God could explain all actions. In general, science did not really exist. People simply looked to the Bible for reassurance about then unexplainable phenomenon. With the development of a scientific method and the industrial revolution, people began to recognize reason in their world through science. In the present day, the general public in their quest to discover all of natures secrets depends on science and its reason. Rogets Dictionary declares that science includes the observation, identification, experimental investigation and theoretical explanation of phenomena. Science tries to describe nature through all of these methods. It seems that every day a new study is published about the relationship between nature and humans. Scientists have explained and improved many aspects of human health and the human body, especially in the twentieth century. In 1936, Dr. Alexis Carrel developed the artificial heart. In 1937, insulin began t o be used to control diabetes. In 1943, penicillin was discovered. In 1954, Jonas Salk inoculated children with the polio vaccination. In 1970, scientist at the University of Wisconsin completed the first complete synthesis of a gene. In 1978 the first "test-tube baby" was born in England and finally, in 1980, the Wor... ...f Western Civilization: Problems and Sources in History. Third Edition. 532. 6. Rogers, Perry M. Aspects of Western Civilization: Problems and Sources in History. Third Edition. 532. 7. Rogers, Perry M. Aspects of Western Civilization: Problems and Sources in History. Third Edition. 542. 8. Rogers, Perry M. Aspects of Western Civilization: Problems and Sources in History. Third Edition. 530. 9. Rogers, Perry M. Aspects of Western Civilization: Problems and Sources in History. Third Edition. 531. 10. Rogers, Perry M. Aspects of Western Civilization: Problems and Sources in History. Third Edition. 539-540. 11. Craver, Bruce. Lecture. University of Dayton. 19 Nov 98. 12. Rogers, Perry M. Aspects of Western Civilization: Problems and Sources in History. Third Edition. 494.