Assignment Unit 303 Support Learning Activities Essay

Mrs S the class teacher, the children and I sat on the carpet and Mrs S asked the children to identify different value coins by sight. I was then asked by Mrs S to help year 1 yellow table with counting coins and recognising the value of money. Mrs C gave each table various amounts of 1 pence, 2 pence, 5 pence and 10 pence coins. I asked all of my table to sit down properly. One child was kneeling on her chair so I explained that she needed to sit down so that she didn’t slip and so that everybody could see. The children initially kept grabbing at the money so I stated that they would all get a turn individually and to leave the coins alone for the moment. Each child was then asked in turn from left to right to work out how many 1 pence pieces were in 2 pence, 5 pence and 10 pence. I referred to the number line on the wall opposite to demonstrate adding and counting. I recognised that one of the children on my table was very quiet and timid, he was reluctant to join in at first as a lot of the other children were talking over him. I asked the table to be quiet so that he could concentrate. I then asked him to count all the 1 pence pieces on the table, he responded well and showed good counting skills, after he had finished I asked if he fully understood all of the task and he replied with a smile. I then worked with the table as a group and we discussed what sort of job involved counting money. Some of the table gave good examples such as working in a shop or bank. A couple of the children appeared to have a greater knowledge of money and addition so whilst the rest of the table continued to discuss money I asked the remaining two to work out bigger sums i.e: how many 1 pence pieces were in two 10 pence pieces and how many 2 pence pieces made up 10 pence.  Also how many 5 pence pieces were in 20 pence. I monitored their ability to count up in twos and fives they both answered quickly and correctly and seemed to enjoy the task. We then counted the coins again individually, as the children were responding I praised each one stating â€Å"well done†. Unfortunately one child didn’t get a turn at the final task because we had run out of time. I asked her if she understood all that we had done and she replied â€Å"yes† Mrs S said it was nearly break time so I asked all of the children to listen to me and tidy away quickly and quietly and explained that if they did this our table would be rewarded with a trophy. Mrs S tied a yellow ribbon around the trophy and awarded our table with it. The children were elated. She then asked me how each child had responded. I explained that they all fully understood the task in hand and although one child did not get time for the final task, she did fully understand. I explained to Mrs S that two of the children I monitored showed a better understanding of Mathematics and money so I decided to progress further with them to maintain their interest and not distract the others. The table all enjoyed the discussion which was carried out without the need to shout out or jump about on their seats. For future reference I will pay close attention to the time required to complete the task to ensure that each child gets the same amount of turns.

Strategic Marketing at Burberry

Content Page Introduction2 1. Business planning and developing a strategy. 3 2. 1. The formation of Burberry’s new strategic business plan. 3 2. 2. Business strategy, vision and mission 4 2. 3. 1. Successful strategy and achieving the goals based on analysis. 5 2. 3. 2. Vision and mission7 2. Protect, Explore and Inspire. Burberry values. 8 3. 3. Values8 3. 4. Classification of Burberry values. 8 3. 5. 3. Protect8 3. 5. 4. Explore9 3. 5. 5. Inspire 10 3.Monitoring and evaluating of Burberry strategic goals and objectives. 11 Conclusion 12 References 13 Introduction The report below tells about the history and development of the iconic luxury brand from Britain, Burberry. It reflects the company’s mission, vision and core purpose, which consequently form the values of the brand. The report indicates the key strategic goals and objectives, which form the competitive advantage of the company, how they are being monitored and evaluated.Having been found as a small shop in B asingstoke, Hampshire, by a young draper Thomas Burberry in 1856 and developed into a large world-know brand ever since, Burberry is one of the first names that springs in mind when it comes to fashion and luxury. [4] The company went through many-years history of change and development. However, the core Burberry product still remains the trench coat made out of the brand weatherproof but breathable Gabardine invented and introduced by Thomas Burberry himself in 1880. [4] Today, according to Business Weekly, Burberry is the 98th most valuable brand. 10] 1. Business planning and developing a strategy Creating the strategy of an organisation is a part of business planning, on one hand, but it is the essence of the strategic planning on the other, where the difference between the strategic plans and the business planning is only in timing of implementing and the process of evaluating the two. Different authors writing in the field of strategic marketing give various definitions of str ategic planning. However, all of them tend to agree in the fact that it always includes the major points below. Vision – developing a common â€Å"vision for the future† or a â€Å"conceptualization† of where an organisation wants or desires to be in the long-term;[10] * Assessment – appraising or determining where an organisation is currently (i. e. , its goals, objectives, activities, results, etc. );[10] * Strategies – identifying how an organisation will actually realise (via concrete and predetermined actions) its mission, goals, and objectives;[10] * Measurement – evaluating the progress of an organisation in the implementation of its action strategies. [10]The report below will be based on the resumptive understanding of the term as a process of formulating of the mission, vision and goals of the organization and choosing the specific paths for outlining and gaining the desired resources to be used in order to provide the successful f unctioning of an organisation in future. Strategic planning is a useful tool in making the decisions concerning the total management of an organisation. Its main purpose is to ensure the right amount of innovation and modification for the organisation to be able to respond to the changes on the market.However, creating a strategy does not lead to an immediate action, but it sets up the general direction for the company to follow in order for its fence-mending and growth. 2. 1. The formation of Burberry’s new strategic business plan One of the main features that characterizes the strategic plan is its possibility to be adapted to the ever changing circumstances initiated by both internal and external factors. Thus over the decades Burberry has been changing its strategy and approach to trading.So when the age of the globalization brought new strong competitors into the market new ways of winning the customers loyalty and preference were to be found. In the 2006 the current CEO Angela Ahrendts joins the company replacing Rose Maria Bravo, who managed to greatly expand the Burberry market share in the US. [6] Ahrendts modernizes every aspect of the company’s behaviour and positioning itself on the market having chosen an innovative five year strategic business plan. 2. 2. Business strategy, vision and missionAccording to the new plan the company concentrates its investment efforts on opening its own stores rather than on the wholesale, especially in London. The new CEO recognizes Burberry’s presence in its genuine way and major PR activity in this city precisely, as another way to emphasize the British heritage of the brand. However, Ahrendts points out there are 25 such â€Å"Londons †, where Burberry will strive for recognition and loyalty, which include such metropolises as Paris, New York, Hong Kong, Dubai, etc. 12] As due to the fact that the company produces luxury goods Ahrendts prefers to play more or less safe and concentrate on those parts of the world which are likely to be protected from the wider economic problems. As another crucial factor for the growth and development that Ahrendts chooses, predicting the future customer be younger, is the company to not maintain their traditional product line and merchandising way only, but to enhance it with the new design and presentation to be able to satisfy the demand of the new type of a customer.Thus the new strategy with the new vision and mission appeared that has brought changes into every area of the company. 2. 3. 1. Successful strategy and achieving the goals based on analysis According to Michael Porter â€Å"Competitive strategy is about being different. It means deliberately choosing different set of activities to deliver a unique mix of value†. [13]The creation and the development of a new strategy to manage such a diverse business with the global outreach as Burberry is very complex in nature. Depending on various both internal and extern al factors it often requires to be made in the uncertain situations.It also often involves the radical change in the current culture of an organisation which is always uneasy for the employees and may adversely affect the performance of the organisation. Being an international company with the Global outreach makes it challenging for the company like Burberry to develop and maintain the competitive strategy that will encourage financial growth and gain advantage on the market. Nevertheless, Angela Ahrendts chooses the most ambitious and strategic plan Burberry has had in almost 50 years. * Leveraging the franchise[4]Where the goals are brand momentum by consistent global articulation, marketing innovation and product excellence. * Intensifying the development of non-apparel[4] By focusing on the yet under-penetrated non-apparel categories, such as men’s collections, soft accessories collections and licensing the eyewear, fragrance, make-up and watches products globally. * Acc elerating retail-led growth[4] To change the static wholesale model of the company to a dynamic retail model by driving the productivity, putting the customer needs in the centre, and investment into opening new stores. Investing in the underpenetrated markets[4] The goals are engaging China, developing India and the Middle East markets and elevating the wholesale presence. * Pursuing operational excellence[4] To be recognised not only by operational excellence, but by product and marketing excellence. However, despite the most well-considered strategy a company is always dependent on both internal and external factors able to make an impact on its development and trade. PESTEL method will help to analyse the macro external environment Burberry may find difficult to deal with in order to realise its strategic plan.Political| Economical| Social| Technological| Environmental| Legal| Being an international company may create problems with possible tensions between the governments of th e countries where Burberry trading takes place| Continuous recession| Fairtrade responsibilitiesAnti-fur/ leather campaigns| New highly technological approaches to selling , buying and advertising the product appear| The impact on the Planet while manufacturing and transporting the goods | Different taxation and trading rules and regulations in different countries|However, not only the macro external factors, but the micro external factors too might cause obstacles for the company’s strategy. Michael Porter’s Five Forces analyses gives the clearest understanding of the micro external environment, which includes the threat of the existing competitive rivalry, threat of bargaining power of the suppliers, threat of substantial products, as well as the threat of the customer bargaining power and the threat of the new entrants. It can be seen from the scheme, that Burberry’s main existing competitors include Stella McCartney in the market of clothing and shoes (appar el); Hermes in the non-apparel market, e. . bags and scarfs; and Chanel to talk about make-up. Moreover there is also a threat from the substantial products, such as those produced by Sisley, Ted Baker and Karen Miller, which are not luxury brands, however do have a reputation of a great quality and they are also British. Which means in times of recession people might switch to them. There is a threat from the suppliers in case they would increase the price, as Burberry only works with those the members of the Ethical Trading Action Group.There is a threat coming from the customers too due to the fact that most of the Burberry products are fashion oriented, which means once they are out of fashion, people will refuse buying them. However, the threat of the new entrants is not essential, as even though the new brands may offer novelty, they cannot offer the name with such a rich background and heritage that Burberry has. All of these factors must be taken into consideration for Burbe rry current strategy to be successful. 2. 3. 2. Vision and missionWith the appointing of Angela Ahrendts as a CEO in 2006 when the Internet was booming bursting the opportunities of the global trade with its no-boarders possibilities, Burberry steps on a completely new path of high-tech cooperation with its customer. [5] With the core Burberry ideology of â€Å"The faster we move forward, it becomes even more critical to look back and never forget who we are and never forget where we came from. And what made this brand such a great global luxury brand today†[2] in mind Ahrends sets the new core purpose for Burberry. We had a vision† – she admits in one of the interviews – â€Å"And the vision was to be the first company who was fully digital from end-to-end†. [2] Ever since the company has been working on integrating various digital approaches to its business. Burberry’s advertising campaigns and catwalk shows became more and more technologic ally complex whereas the on-line trading on the contrary became easier and more available by the company’s partnering with various on-line selling platforms to take that vision and built the social enterprise.The experience expected was that the customer would have the total access to Burberry across any device anywhere and would get exactly the same feeling of the brand, feeling of the culture, regardless of where, when, how they were accessing the brand. Everyone now should be able come into Burberry world and see the Burberry journey and mission. The new vision enhanced the Burberry mission to sell its â€Å"distinctive Britishness† to the world with the new flavour of community that every customer is believed to become a part of buying or at least being interested in a Burberry product.Such attitude intends to create greater customer’s loyalty to the brand as this is the community, where one’s opinion in a way of a feedback is valued and appreciated. Even the personal preferences of how the core Burberry product should look like is taken into consideration from now on as the company launched www. artofthetrench. com web platform, where anyone can post their photos wearing a Burberry trench, moreover, can create their own trench coat based on the iconic trench from Burberry. Ahrendts goal is to deepen, broaden and vary the communication between the company and the customer through every activity the company is involved in.She emphasizes on the vital necessity of the cross-channel communication to be â€Å"totally connected to everyone who touches your brand†. [2] The new vision and the new additions to the established mission of the company have formed the brand’s new strategic intentions 2. Protect, Explore and Inspire. Burberry values. 3. 3. Values Burberry is a brand with over 150 years of history. [6] All that time the company has been run by the efforts of many people and, naturally, these people might have bee n of a completely different personalities, views and opinions. However, being a company, which in this case is Burberry, draw hese people together united not only by common vision of where the company is going, but also by the values, which in a context of a corporate culture set the behavioural norms of the company through years for everyone who entered it. Edgar H. Schein describes corporate values as â€Å"A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems†. 7] Burberry defines their core values as Protect, Explore and Inspire. Angela Ahrendts, Burberry’s CEO, often refers to the company as the â€Å"new and old company†[9] and such description definitely reflects the way the company constantly strives for the new opportunities, but always staying faithful to its old priorities. The essence of the Protect, Explore and Inspire company’s core values can be explained through the objectives of Burberry as an organization. 2. 2. Classification of Burberry values 2. 2. 1. Protect 1. Cultural value of the company to traditionally remain a â€Å"quintessentially British† brand.Burberry is proud of its rich heritage which has seen over a 150 years of British history. Thus the company is passionate about the the authenticity of their trade mark and core product in design and purpose, such as world-wide recognized trademark check and Prorsum horse logo and a traditional modern classic style trench coat. 2. Environmental value aims the environmental excellence of the company. Burberry is continuously aware about the environmental issues, such as climate change and carbon dioxide emissions and animal welfare, for example.The company is a member of the UN Global Compact and uses the Compact’s Ten Principles to guide its Corporate Responsibility activities. It is listed on the FTSE4Good Index and achieved the Carbon Trust Standard. [15] The work of the Business for Social Responsibility Sustainable Luxury Working Group, of which Burberry was a founding member, also continued this year, focusing on animal welfare guidelines and the exotic skins supply chain. As a result, the release of a common Animal Welfare Policy by the Group was communicated to Burberry suppliers, detailing its high expectations in respect of welfare standards. 15] Burberry is also a member of the Leather Working Group, supporting its efforts to improve transparency in the leather industry. Burberry does not utilise sandblasting on any of its products manufactured by or on behalf of the Group. [15] 3. Ethical value is in the desire of the brand to ensure the rights of their employees are highly valued and carefully followed. Burberry constantly shows its striving towards the improved C orporate Responsibility (CR) performance.To achieve long-term improvements in labour conditions, Burberry provides support and resources to suppliers to empower them to take responsibility for their factory and subcontractor conditions. The CR team delivers supplier training covering the Group’s ethical trading expectations, management systems and counsel on transparency and standards for subcontractors. [5] Burberry strongly believes that a policy of equal opportunity in employment is integral to the strength and growth of its business as a global brand with a diverse stakeholder and customer base.The company aims to ensure that the most capable job applicants are recruited and the most competent employees in the company progress. All decisions about people’s employment are based solely on an objective assessment of their suitability for the job. Burberry aims to maintain a working environment free from harassment or intimidation on discriminatory grounds and ensures that employment conditions and job requirements reflect its commitment to equal opportunities. [5] 2. 2. 2. Explore Burberry values in that area are very much business oriented.Thomas Burberry, the founder of the brand, explored the world of outerwear of his generation by inventing his sensational waterproof Gabardine and a trench coat, which none has ever seen nor worn before. Today Burberry’s aims to expand its production range to make it as diverse as possible to increase the market share. However at the moment the range already goes from the core innovative outerwear to not only womenswear and menswear, but to the non-apparel items, e. g. accessories, watches, childrenswear and even some home decoration items. 8] Burberry has always been aiming for the new markets: first sports and outdoors, then military usage and later civilian clothing. Now that the company has established itself on the different types of market, it is striving for the geographical expansion taking mar kets throughout the world, with a balance across major geographic regions. 2. 2. 3. Inspire They are the Burberry social objectives. Burberry believes that contributing into the local communities the company works with will make a positive impact.In 2008 Burberry established the Burberry Foundation charity organisation the purpose of which was to help young people realise their potential through fashion and creativity, built their confidence and self-esteem. [9] 3. Monitoring and evaluating of the strategic goals and objectives Ahrendts approach to monitoring and evaluating of the strategy execution and achieving the goals is â€Å"Divide and conquer†. According to that there were particular teams created to monitor and evaluate particular aspect of the new strategy. Design team, headed by Chief Creative Office, responsible for everything the consumer sees, including merchandising and creative media;[4] †¢Marketing team responsible for integrated advertising, PR and comm unications functions, which together focus on building and elevating brand awareness through traditional and digital media;[4] †¢Digital commerce newly-formed team, driving digital commerce globally to accelerate the brand’s digital leadership position in the luxury sector and help unlock the huge opportunities in this high-growth channel;[4] †¢Merchandising and planning team, which assorts, procures, and analyses the global collections in alignment with brand initiatives and commercial opportunities. [4] Every year Burberry reveals their annual results and achievements according to the itinerary in their annual report. ConclusionA straight forward highly innovative strategy by the new Burberry CEO caused uncertain reaction from different people in 2006 as well as it still causes doubts. Some think those were unnecessary changes, which made Burberry loose its original look and spirit, and some believe it was the best thing that have happened to Burberry in the last 50 years. However, the facts and numbers indicate that Burberry grew up to 500 stores in over 50 countries and led to increase the total revenue up to +23% in five years by September 2012 with the on-line sales increase in 50%. [3] Almost certainly the course has been changing during those five years due to the macro and micro external factors, which were indicated above.Nonetheless, it is obvious that creating a relevant and detailed strategic business plan and a consistent monitoring of its results and execution are crucial for a successful management of the company. Also, the earliest possible setting of the strategic goals and stating the company’s vision and mission and staying faithful to them makes the strategic plan effective. And in conclusion, understanding the values of an organisation will keep the corporate culture of the company stable, which is directly linked to productivity and job satisfaction among employees. References 1. Angela Ahrendts. (2011). Burberry uses salesforce com to create the ultimate Social Enterprise. Available: http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=oRpLo44nUEQ. Last accessed 13. 12. 2012. 2.Angela Ahrendts. (2011). The Young-Old Company – Angela Ahrendts, Burberry. Available: http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=_i50d6wiCBc. Last accessed 13. 12. 2012. 3. Burberry. (2012). Annual report. Available: http://www. burberryplc. com/documents/full_annual_report/burberry_ar_final_web_with-urls_indexed. pdf. Last accessed 13. 12. 2012 4. Burberry. (2012). Annual report. Available: http://www. burberryplc. com/documents/full_annual_report/burberry_ar_final_web_with-urls_indexed. pdf. Last accessed 13. 12. 2012. 5. BW staff. (2009). The 100 Best Global Brands 2009. Available: http://images. businessweek. com/ss/09/09/0917_global_brands/4. htm . Last Strategic Marketing at Burberry Content Page Introduction2 1. Business planning and developing a strategy. 3 2. 1. The formation of Burberry’s new strategic business plan. 3 2. 2. Business strategy, vision and mission 4 2. 3. 1. Successful strategy and achieving the goals based on analysis. 5 2. 3. 2. Vision and mission7 2. Protect, Explore and Inspire. Burberry values. 8 3. 3. Values8 3. 4. Classification of Burberry values. 8 3. 5. 3. Protect8 3. 5. 4. Explore9 3. 5. 5. Inspire 10 3.Monitoring and evaluating of Burberry strategic goals and objectives. 11 Conclusion 12 References 13 Introduction The report below tells about the history and development of the iconic luxury brand from Britain, Burberry. It reflects the company’s mission, vision and core purpose, which consequently form the values of the brand. The report indicates the key strategic goals and objectives, which form the competitive advantage of the company, how they are being monitored and evaluated.Having been found as a small shop in B asingstoke, Hampshire, by a young draper Thomas Burberry in 1856 and developed into a large world-know brand ever since, Burberry is one of the first names that springs in mind when it comes to fashion and luxury. [4] The company went through many-years history of change and development. However, the core Burberry product still remains the trench coat made out of the brand weatherproof but breathable Gabardine invented and introduced by Thomas Burberry himself in 1880. [4] Today, according to Business Weekly, Burberry is the 98th most valuable brand. 10] 1. Business planning and developing a strategy Creating the strategy of an organisation is a part of business planning, on one hand, but it is the essence of the strategic planning on the other, where the difference between the strategic plans and the business planning is only in timing of implementing and the process of evaluating the two. Different authors writing in the field of strategic marketing give various definitions of str ategic planning. However, all of them tend to agree in the fact that it always includes the major points below. Vision – developing a common â€Å"vision for the future† or a â€Å"conceptualization† of where an organisation wants or desires to be in the long-term;[10] * Assessment – appraising or determining where an organisation is currently (i. e. , its goals, objectives, activities, results, etc. );[10] * Strategies – identifying how an organisation will actually realise (via concrete and predetermined actions) its mission, goals, and objectives;[10] * Measurement – evaluating the progress of an organisation in the implementation of its action strategies. [10]The report below will be based on the resumptive understanding of the term as a process of formulating of the mission, vision and goals of the organization and choosing the specific paths for outlining and gaining the desired resources to be used in order to provide the successful f unctioning of an organisation in future. Strategic planning is a useful tool in making the decisions concerning the total management of an organisation. Its main purpose is to ensure the right amount of innovation and modification for the organisation to be able to respond to the changes on the market.However, creating a strategy does not lead to an immediate action, but it sets up the general direction for the company to follow in order for its fence-mending and growth. 2. 1. The formation of Burberry’s new strategic business plan One of the main features that characterizes the strategic plan is its possibility to be adapted to the ever changing circumstances initiated by both internal and external factors. Thus over the decades Burberry has been changing its strategy and approach to trading.So when the age of the globalization brought new strong competitors into the market new ways of winning the customers loyalty and preference were to be found. In the 2006 the current CEO Angela Ahrendts joins the company replacing Rose Maria Bravo, who managed to greatly expand the Burberry market share in the US. [6] Ahrendts modernizes every aspect of the company’s behaviour and positioning itself on the market having chosen an innovative five year strategic business plan. 2. 2. Business strategy, vision and missionAccording to the new plan the company concentrates its investment efforts on opening its own stores rather than on the wholesale, especially in London. The new CEO recognizes Burberry’s presence in its genuine way and major PR activity in this city precisely, as another way to emphasize the British heritage of the brand. However, Ahrendts points out there are 25 such â€Å"Londons †, where Burberry will strive for recognition and loyalty, which include such metropolises as Paris, New York, Hong Kong, Dubai, etc. 12] As due to the fact that the company produces luxury goods Ahrendts prefers to play more or less safe and concentrate on those parts of the world which are likely to be protected from the wider economic problems. As another crucial factor for the growth and development that Ahrendts chooses, predicting the future customer be younger, is the company to not maintain their traditional product line and merchandising way only, but to enhance it with the new design and presentation to be able to satisfy the demand of the new type of a customer.Thus the new strategy with the new vision and mission appeared that has brought changes into every area of the company. 2. 3. 1. Successful strategy and achieving the goals based on analysis According to Michael Porter â€Å"Competitive strategy is about being different. It means deliberately choosing different set of activities to deliver a unique mix of value†. [13]The creation and the development of a new strategy to manage such a diverse business with the global outreach as Burberry is very complex in nature. Depending on various both internal and extern al factors it often requires to be made in the uncertain situations.It also often involves the radical change in the current culture of an organisation which is always uneasy for the employees and may adversely affect the performance of the organisation. Being an international company with the Global outreach makes it challenging for the company like Burberry to develop and maintain the competitive strategy that will encourage financial growth and gain advantage on the market. Nevertheless, Angela Ahrendts chooses the most ambitious and strategic plan Burberry has had in almost 50 years. * Leveraging the franchise[4]Where the goals are brand momentum by consistent global articulation, marketing innovation and product excellence. * Intensifying the development of non-apparel[4] By focusing on the yet under-penetrated non-apparel categories, such as men’s collections, soft accessories collections and licensing the eyewear, fragrance, make-up and watches products globally. * Acc elerating retail-led growth[4] To change the static wholesale model of the company to a dynamic retail model by driving the productivity, putting the customer needs in the centre, and investment into opening new stores. Investing in the underpenetrated markets[4] The goals are engaging China, developing India and the Middle East markets and elevating the wholesale presence. * Pursuing operational excellence[4] To be recognised not only by operational excellence, but by product and marketing excellence. However, despite the most well-considered strategy a company is always dependent on both internal and external factors able to make an impact on its development and trade. PESTEL method will help to analyse the macro external environment Burberry may find difficult to deal with in order to realise its strategic plan.Political| Economical| Social| Technological| Environmental| Legal| Being an international company may create problems with possible tensions between the governments of th e countries where Burberry trading takes place| Continuous recession| Fairtrade responsibilitiesAnti-fur/ leather campaigns| New highly technological approaches to selling , buying and advertising the product appear| The impact on the Planet while manufacturing and transporting the goods | Different taxation and trading rules and regulations in different countries|However, not only the macro external factors, but the micro external factors too might cause obstacles for the company’s strategy. Michael Porter’s Five Forces analyses gives the clearest understanding of the micro external environment, which includes the threat of the existing competitive rivalry, threat of bargaining power of the suppliers, threat of substantial products, as well as the threat of the customer bargaining power and the threat of the new entrants. It can be seen from the scheme, that Burberry’s main existing competitors include Stella McCartney in the market of clothing and shoes (appar el); Hermes in the non-apparel market, e. . bags and scarfs; and Chanel to talk about make-up. Moreover there is also a threat from the substantial products, such as those produced by Sisley, Ted Baker and Karen Miller, which are not luxury brands, however do have a reputation of a great quality and they are also British. Which means in times of recession people might switch to them. There is a threat from the suppliers in case they would increase the price, as Burberry only works with those the members of the Ethical Trading Action Group.There is a threat coming from the customers too due to the fact that most of the Burberry products are fashion oriented, which means once they are out of fashion, people will refuse buying them. However, the threat of the new entrants is not essential, as even though the new brands may offer novelty, they cannot offer the name with such a rich background and heritage that Burberry has. All of these factors must be taken into consideration for Burbe rry current strategy to be successful. 2. 3. 2. Vision and missionWith the appointing of Angela Ahrendts as a CEO in 2006 when the Internet was booming bursting the opportunities of the global trade with its no-boarders possibilities, Burberry steps on a completely new path of high-tech cooperation with its customer. [5] With the core Burberry ideology of â€Å"The faster we move forward, it becomes even more critical to look back and never forget who we are and never forget where we came from. And what made this brand such a great global luxury brand today†[2] in mind Ahrends sets the new core purpose for Burberry. We had a vision† – she admits in one of the interviews – â€Å"And the vision was to be the first company who was fully digital from end-to-end†. [2] Ever since the company has been working on integrating various digital approaches to its business. Burberry’s advertising campaigns and catwalk shows became more and more technologic ally complex whereas the on-line trading on the contrary became easier and more available by the company’s partnering with various on-line selling platforms to take that vision and built the social enterprise.The experience expected was that the customer would have the total access to Burberry across any device anywhere and would get exactly the same feeling of the brand, feeling of the culture, regardless of where, when, how they were accessing the brand. Everyone now should be able come into Burberry world and see the Burberry journey and mission. The new vision enhanced the Burberry mission to sell its â€Å"distinctive Britishness† to the world with the new flavour of community that every customer is believed to become a part of buying or at least being interested in a Burberry product.Such attitude intends to create greater customer’s loyalty to the brand as this is the community, where one’s opinion in a way of a feedback is valued and appreciated. Even the personal preferences of how the core Burberry product should look like is taken into consideration from now on as the company launched www. artofthetrench. com web platform, where anyone can post their photos wearing a Burberry trench, moreover, can create their own trench coat based on the iconic trench from Burberry. Ahrendts goal is to deepen, broaden and vary the communication between the company and the customer through every activity the company is involved in.She emphasizes on the vital necessity of the cross-channel communication to be â€Å"totally connected to everyone who touches your brand†. [2] The new vision and the new additions to the established mission of the company have formed the brand’s new strategic intentions 2. Protect, Explore and Inspire. Burberry values. 3. 3. Values Burberry is a brand with over 150 years of history. [6] All that time the company has been run by the efforts of many people and, naturally, these people might have bee n of a completely different personalities, views and opinions. However, being a company, which in this case is Burberry, draw hese people together united not only by common vision of where the company is going, but also by the values, which in a context of a corporate culture set the behavioural norms of the company through years for everyone who entered it. Edgar H. Schein describes corporate values as â€Å"A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems†. 7] Burberry defines their core values as Protect, Explore and Inspire. Angela Ahrendts, Burberry’s CEO, often refers to the company as the â€Å"new and old company†[9] and such description definitely reflects the way the company constantly strives for the new opportunities, but always staying faithful to its old priorities. The essence of the Protect, Explore and Inspire company’s core values can be explained through the objectives of Burberry as an organization. 2. 2. Classification of Burberry values 2. 2. 1. Protect 1. Cultural value of the company to traditionally remain a â€Å"quintessentially British† brand.Burberry is proud of its rich heritage which has seen over a 150 years of British history. Thus the company is passionate about the the authenticity of their trade mark and core product in design and purpose, such as world-wide recognized trademark check and Prorsum horse logo and a traditional modern classic style trench coat. 2. Environmental value aims the environmental excellence of the company. Burberry is continuously aware about the environmental issues, such as climate change and carbon dioxide emissions and animal welfare, for example.The company is a member of the UN Global Compact and uses the Compact’s Ten Principles to guide its Corporate Responsibility activities. It is listed on the FTSE4Good Index and achieved the Carbon Trust Standard. [15] The work of the Business for Social Responsibility Sustainable Luxury Working Group, of which Burberry was a founding member, also continued this year, focusing on animal welfare guidelines and the exotic skins supply chain. As a result, the release of a common Animal Welfare Policy by the Group was communicated to Burberry suppliers, detailing its high expectations in respect of welfare standards. 15] Burberry is also a member of the Leather Working Group, supporting its efforts to improve transparency in the leather industry. Burberry does not utilise sandblasting on any of its products manufactured by or on behalf of the Group. [15] 3. Ethical value is in the desire of the brand to ensure the rights of their employees are highly valued and carefully followed. Burberry constantly shows its striving towards the improved C orporate Responsibility (CR) performance.To achieve long-term improvements in labour conditions, Burberry provides support and resources to suppliers to empower them to take responsibility for their factory and subcontractor conditions. The CR team delivers supplier training covering the Group’s ethical trading expectations, management systems and counsel on transparency and standards for subcontractors. [5] Burberry strongly believes that a policy of equal opportunity in employment is integral to the strength and growth of its business as a global brand with a diverse stakeholder and customer base.The company aims to ensure that the most capable job applicants are recruited and the most competent employees in the company progress. All decisions about people’s employment are based solely on an objective assessment of their suitability for the job. Burberry aims to maintain a working environment free from harassment or intimidation on discriminatory grounds and ensures that employment conditions and job requirements reflect its commitment to equal opportunities. [5] 2. 2. 2. Explore Burberry values in that area are very much business oriented.Thomas Burberry, the founder of the brand, explored the world of outerwear of his generation by inventing his sensational waterproof Gabardine and a trench coat, which none has ever seen nor worn before. Today Burberry’s aims to expand its production range to make it as diverse as possible to increase the market share. However at the moment the range already goes from the core innovative outerwear to not only womenswear and menswear, but to the non-apparel items, e. g. accessories, watches, childrenswear and even some home decoration items. 8] Burberry has always been aiming for the new markets: first sports and outdoors, then military usage and later civilian clothing. Now that the company has established itself on the different types of market, it is striving for the geographical expansion taking mar kets throughout the world, with a balance across major geographic regions. 2. 2. 3. Inspire They are the Burberry social objectives. Burberry believes that contributing into the local communities the company works with will make a positive impact.In 2008 Burberry established the Burberry Foundation charity organisation the purpose of which was to help young people realise their potential through fashion and creativity, built their confidence and self-esteem. [9] 3. Monitoring and evaluating of the strategic goals and objectives Ahrendts approach to monitoring and evaluating of the strategy execution and achieving the goals is â€Å"Divide and conquer†. According to that there were particular teams created to monitor and evaluate particular aspect of the new strategy. Design team, headed by Chief Creative Office, responsible for everything the consumer sees, including merchandising and creative media;[4] †¢Marketing team responsible for integrated advertising, PR and comm unications functions, which together focus on building and elevating brand awareness through traditional and digital media;[4] †¢Digital commerce newly-formed team, driving digital commerce globally to accelerate the brand’s digital leadership position in the luxury sector and help unlock the huge opportunities in this high-growth channel;[4] †¢Merchandising and planning team, which assorts, procures, and analyses the global collections in alignment with brand initiatives and commercial opportunities. [4] Every year Burberry reveals their annual results and achievements according to the itinerary in their annual report. ConclusionA straight forward highly innovative strategy by the new Burberry CEO caused uncertain reaction from different people in 2006 as well as it still causes doubts. Some think those were unnecessary changes, which made Burberry loose its original look and spirit, and some believe it was the best thing that have happened to Burberry in the last 50 years. However, the facts and numbers indicate that Burberry grew up to 500 stores in over 50 countries and led to increase the total revenue up to +23% in five years by September 2012 with the on-line sales increase in 50%. [3] Almost certainly the course has been changing during those five years due to the macro and micro external factors, which were indicated above.Nonetheless, it is obvious that creating a relevant and detailed strategic business plan and a consistent monitoring of its results and execution are crucial for a successful management of the company. Also, the earliest possible setting of the strategic goals and stating the company’s vision and mission and staying faithful to them makes the strategic plan effective. And in conclusion, understanding the values of an organisation will keep the corporate culture of the company stable, which is directly linked to productivity and job satisfaction among employees. References 1. Angela Ahrendts. (2011). Burberry uses salesforce com to create the ultimate Social Enterprise. Available: http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=oRpLo44nUEQ. Last accessed 13. 12. 2012. 2.Angela Ahrendts. (2011). The Young-Old Company – Angela Ahrendts, Burberry. Available: http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=_i50d6wiCBc. Last accessed 13. 12. 2012. 3. Burberry. (2012). Annual report. Available: http://www. burberryplc. com/documents/full_annual_report/burberry_ar_final_web_with-urls_indexed. pdf. Last accessed 13. 12. 2012 4. Burberry. (2012). Annual report. Available: http://www. burberryplc. com/documents/full_annual_report/burberry_ar_final_web_with-urls_indexed. pdf. Last accessed 13. 12. 2012. 5. BW staff. (2009). The 100 Best Global Brands 2009. Available: http://images. businessweek. com/ss/09/09/0917_global_brands/4. htm . Last

Poor Patient Care due to Nursing Shortage Leading to Professional, Research Paper

Poor Patient Care due to Nursing Shortage Leading to Professional, Ethical and Legal Issues - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that in the healthcare setting, nurses are the important players in nourishing and rehabilitating an unhealthy, injured, diseased individual back to a normal and healthy individual, thereby enabling him/her to live a happy and successful life. The roles and duties of a nurse have also evolved with the changing face of nursing. Rather than becoming few, they have become many, with nurses increasingly taking up certain duties that were previously left to society. The development of nursing has also seen nurses evolve from general practitioners to highly specialized professionals, with areas of practice ranging from geriatric nursing to pediatric nursing. This has resulted in better patient care and higher patient survival rates. With the rapid development of human society and increasing health needs, this specialization across the nursing profession is bound to increase even more. However, there is another side to the above scenario. That is, due to the number of factors, there is sizable nursing shortage throughout the world including in the UK, and that is leading to poor patient care. Due to this shortage of nurses in healthcare settings, patients are put in a high risk condition, as they are not being given expected as well as adequate care leading to professional, ethical and legal issues Identification of the legal, professional and ethical issues A nurse will only â€Å"provide a structure of caring that can ultimately create an environment where†¦ a patient can begin a transition from victim to survivor† (Johnston 2006). Thus, if the shortage of nurses accentuates, the ‘structure’ will collapse, leading to a lot of trouble and risks. Shortage of nurses is being witnessed in many UK hospitals in the past few years, thereby placing NHS in a peril state. A shortage is happening because many hospitals have placed a freeze on the recruitment of new nurses and also axing currently functioning nurses as well. â€Å"Many hospitals have been axing nursing posts or imposing recruitment freezes since 2005 and 2006, having racked up huge debts. Official figures show 5,964 nursing posts have been axed in the past two years. † (Borland 2013). Shortage of nursing staff has a major detrimental impact on the quality of service of the hospital which directly impacts its reputation as well as on the hospital’s overall capacity to service (Buerhaus et al. 2007). More than the hospital’s image, the valuable lives of people are at stake. People come to a healthcare setting in an already compromised state, with both their physical as well as mental health in a will be in a weakened state. That is, as people visit hospitals, when their physical body is malfunctioning, diseased and injured, their physical strength and also their mental morale will be at an all-time low. Fig 1: (Borland 2013). Considering their state, it is of crucial importance for the healthcare profe ssionals particularly nurses, as said above, to provide them with apt care and ‘nurse’ back to health. (Gosling and Mintzberg 2003). However, when there is the shortage of nurses, all the patients may not be given apt and equal care, also may not be given quick care or care in times of need, and even deficient care. When this happens, many worst-case scenarios arise. â€Å"Recent documents, including the infamous Francis Report, have exposed a catalog of failings in the NHS, where patients have been neglected, poorly observed and physically abused. Findings detailed how patients were left unwashed; unable to eat and drink due to lack of help, and overall poorly managed in their final hours of need.† (The City Times).  

Academic writing skills Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Academic writing skills - Essay Example The critical comparison of two academic papers requires the presentation of their strengths and weaknesses in regard to their structure and content;at the same time it is necessary to refer to their alignment with the ethical standards of academic research– especially if there is empirical research involved. Current paper focuses on the comparison of two academic pieces of work; the first of them, entitled as ‘Earning it’ will be referred to as ‘Assignment 1’, while the second one, entitled as ‘Direct Line Reviews and System Acquisition’ will be referred to as ‘Assignment 2’; the two assignments will be compared as of their structural characteristics and content, but also as of their language and referencing. The fact that the two papers will not refer to the same subject does not set barriers to their comparison, since they are of similar type, i.e. they are both essays, and of similar length (Shampoo and Resnik, 2009, p. 8) – even if assignment 1 is of more words compared to assignment 2, a fact which will be of critical importance for evaluating the two paper’s structure/ content, as analysed below. One of the first issues that should be highlighted is the difference in the research done in regard to the issues under discussion; more specifically, the first paper has been supported by a series of studies, approximately 10, which provide critical information on the issues under discussion. ... icant efforts, in terms of the nature of the paper’s subject, to cover the issues under discussion but he had limited choices in terms of literature available on the specific subject. In terms of the planning of each paper, the following comments would be made: assignment 1 is not well structured, the issues related to the paper are adequately supported in terms of references but they are not clearly presented; more specifically, it could be argued that assignment 1 is not easy to be read – providing a lot of information on the paper’s subject but the material is not appropriately categorized and cited. This difficulty in reading and understanding assignment 1 is probably caused of its presentation – sections are not clearly distinguished, instead, long paragraphs are used for presenting the material available and the author’s arguments. Moreover, in assignment 1 it is difficult for the reader to understand the coherence of information. Information from various sources is added but is not appropriately presented, as explained above. In this way, the value of the paper as an academic piece of work is reduced. On the other hand, assignment 2 is well structured; paragraphs and sub-paragraphs have been used in order to make the text easier to be read. Moreover, the sequence in the arguments regarding the issues under discussion is clearer – a fact which is proved through the appropriate (and logical) order of the paper’s sections (as they are revealed through its sub-headings). For this reason, in terms of planning, the assignment 2 has a clear advantage – taking into consideration also the fact that despite the lack of adequate references, assignment 2 is well supported in terms of the arguments involve, an issue which is also analytically discussed below

Health system policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Health system policy - Essay Example Providing care to patients infected by resistant organisms invariably leads to considerable cost not only on the part of the patient, but also on the care providers. To reduce the cost, morbidity, mortality, and stakeholder dissatisfaction, therefore, administrative strategies have been used at the government and policy levels. These policies have significant implications towards solving these problems in the healthcare. For example, it has been noted that control of antibiotic usage, pharmacy or infectious diseases consultation for antibiotic usage, surveillance of resistance rates of specific and prevalent pathogens, development of institutional infection control policies and guidelines, all may cause a decline in healthcare associated infection rates (Johnston. and Bryce, 2009). Policy only is not sufficient; in fact surveillance of policy implementation and evaluation of policy is a very important aspect of health system infection control policy. Almost in all countries including Australia, numerous hospital-based strategies have been developed and implemented in order to prevent such infections. Some of these policies have been tested also. In some cases these guidelines are augmented with regular updates to frame specific and mandatory guidelines that aim at prevention of transmission of pathogenic bacteria to people who are ill otherwise within the hospital based healthcare setting. Several studies unfortunately indicate gaps in implementation of these policies since there were variabilities in practices and outcomes (Reingold, 1998). The CDC initiated study on nosocomial infection control policies identified the positive roles of infection control components in reducing the hospital-associated infection rates. Although this was conducted in a different country, it successfully identified the four main

Questions and Answers on Family and Consumer Science Assignment

Questions and Answers on Family and Consumer Science - Assignment Example 2. What are assumptions in the scientific sense? An assumption, in the scientific sense, is a working hypothesis. Before going on with the experimentation, people usually make assumptions first to form a specific structure of an idea. Assumptions are usually several before an experiment begins, and gets reduced towards or by the end of the experiment. Fewer assumptions by the end of an experiment means that there is an increased understanding on the matter. 3. Briefly explain the goals or functions of science. The primary goals of science are description, understanding, prediction, and control. Description is where the phenomena is defined, while understanding is where the occurrence of the phenomena is determined. Prediction is done by forecasting or through hypotheses. Finally, the aim to control a phenomena follows after truly understanding it. The function of science, on the other hand, is to provide a factual reasoning regarding an idea. 4. What is meant by the term â€Å"cumul ative nature of science†? Discoveries in science are interconnected and, to some extent, confirmation of its fundamental principles. This means that rejecting these fundamentals is synonymous to rejecting, and going through another process to understand, several previous successful researches and experiments. This is the cumulative nature of science. 5. Explain the importance of research having a theoretical base? It is impossible to do a research from all perspectives even on a single idea or matter. The theoretical base helps in establishing a standpoint, position, and a procedure on which the experiment will be based (Bryman, 2008, p.17). This means that creating a theoretical base is a step towards a clearer and narrowed research --- excluding other perspectives that might affect the research, while having the rationale for refusing to include these other perspectives. 6. Explain the basic ideas behind Wallace's Wheel. Wallace's Wheel is a good illustration of the concept of how the knowledge base of science develops and grows. It points out how scientific theories and scientific experiments and researches continuously form and mold each other. 7. List and briefly define the categories, or â€Å"parts† of the research process. A typical research process has an introduction, a literature review, methodology, findings, and conclusion. The introduction should include information regarding the research such as primary objectives, benefits of the research, and even the researcher's background on the topic. The literature review is an overview of past researches related to the current one. The methodology is where the explanation of the procedure for the research is done. Findings discusses the analysis of the gathered date, and the conclusion is the summary of the whole project. The conclusion also discusses whether the primary objectives were met, and if further researches are suggested (Bryman, 2008, p.33). 8. Explain the difference between basic research and applied research. A basic research is a product of the researcher's interest or curiosity in a concept or idea. The main goal of this type of research is to expand the knowledge. On the other hand, applied research is a product of the need to answer the practical problems about almost anything. The main goal of this type of research is to improve human conditions (Bryman, 2008, p.26). 9. In a nutshell, explain human ecology theory.

Worldviews applied Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Worldviews applied - Essay Example Post-modern women prefer to have an abortion if they are financially unable to cope with raising a child. Pregnancies that are not planned leave the future mother with a tough choice to make. If she does not have a boyfriend or partner, then she would have to raise the child on her own. Going through with the baby would mean that she would need to take time off work perhaps a couple of months before the baby is born and then a few months after the birth. For a woman who has built a solid career for herself, this can act as a deterrent to having a baby. The cost involved with raising a child can also be probative, and it may prevent a woman from achieving financial security. Another reason why post-modern women favor abortions is because of the hindrance a baby would be on their social lives. Young women generally like to go out with friends to parties, go shopping at the mall, and take trips overseas during their holidays. The presence of a young child changes all that completely because all of a sudden the child’s needs must be put first. What cannot be disputed is that having a baby changes a woman’s social life completely, and some woman are just not willing to accept that and so choose to get abortions. The final reason why post-modern women choose to receive abortions is because of the physical harm that a woman has to go through to deliver a baby. Getting pregnant as a result of incest or rape is something that many women go through each year, and some choose to abort because of the shame at having gone through such a physical ordeal. Still, other women prefer to get an abortion because of the negative changes their bodies will experience over the course of pregnancy and even for months after. A woman’s body has to accommodate a child, and this can change the physical complexion of a woman completely. In conclusion, post-women are empowered to make their own choices

The current extended interpretation of the Commerce Clause Research Paper

The current extended interpretation of the Commerce Clause - Research Paper Example There is little doubt that the conventional and accepted common meaning of commerce both in common discourse as well as in legal language, was mercantile trade and the additionally associated activities (Natelson & Kopel, 2011). There are at least four possible interpretations which have been proposed in interpretation of the Commercial Clause (Scheb & Stephens, 2007, pg. 100). First it has been advocated that the clause bestows upon the Congress the absolute power to control commerce. Under this construal, states are deprived off power to check interstate commerce. Secondly, it has been interprated that theclause gives Congress and the states contemporaneous powers to regulate commerce. Under this interpretation, state regulation of commerce is unenforceable only in cases where it is pre-empted by federal laws (Exploring Constitutional Conflicts, 2011). Third, the Commerce Clause has been interpreted to imply that both the congress and the states each have their own mutually exclusive zones of regulatory power. Under this construal, it becomes the responsibility of the judicial system to determine whether one sovereign has invaded the exclusive regulatory zone of the other. The last interpretation that has been advanced is that the clause by its own force dissociates states the power to regulate commerce in certain ways, but both the Congress and States retain coexisting power to control commerce in many other respects. This forth interpretation, is a complicated and convoluted hybrid of two others, and it is the approach employed by the courts in their decision while interpreting the commerce clause. According to Marshall (Kommers, Finn, & Jacobsohn, 2004, pg. 301), as long as any aspect of commerce implicated or involved more than one state, such as transportation or the exchange of commodities across state lines, congress may regulate it. The power to regulate, however, is equally broad. He added, this power, like all others

Organic Farming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 7500 words

Organic Farming - Essay Example The majority of the studies have concluded that organic farming and the food produced this way, providing it is properly monitored, is beneficial to the environment and to the consumer. However, the industry is not experiencing the growth that was forecast in the early days of development. If organic farming is so important, why is it still considered a fad and not become a way of life Is organic farming as important and efficient as its proponents suggest Little research has been directed at this dilemma. The scope of this report is to investigate the nature, structure, business, and legal aspect of Organic Farming, and to ascertain the validity of the claims made as to its importance as a preferable and sustainable source in the food and product chain. The objective is to ascertain why organic farming has not become an important issue to the consumer, and action can be taken to address this situation. To provide an answer to the hypothesis our research focuses on the following areas: - To give a balanced view to our study, we also look at the international aspect of the industry, in terms of its size and market share. Our intention is that this study will complement and add value to the existing research on the subject matter. In an effort to provide a logical ... To provide an answer to the hypothesis our research focuses on the following areas: - The ethics of Organic Farming, to ascertain whether the claims made are valid or not. The industry itself, in an effort to gauge the its marketing effectiveness, how it manages the risk element, and the domestic and international size of the industry. The applicable laws, standards, and labelling requirement imposed upon the industry. How the Organic industry can achieve a more effective program for educating the consumer in relation to the benefits and value of its products. To give a balanced view to our study, we also look at the international aspect of the industry, in terms of its size and market share. Our intention is that this study will complement and add value to the existing research on the subject matter. Overview In an effort to provide a logical progression for the paper, a brief history of the industry and its methods are outlined in chapter two. In the third chapter we concentrate upon the business aspect of the industry and its impact, both national and globally, before we move the to discuss the ethics of organic production in chapter four. The current laws, standards, and labelling upon the producers are reviewed in chapter five before we analyze the methods by which the industry currently educates the industry the consumer, and this leads us to the conclusion of our study in chapter, where appropriate recommendations will be outlined. Chapter 2 Background To provide for an better understanding of the substantial amount of research and debate that surrounds Organic Farming and the content of these papers, it is necessary to understand the origins of the industry, and the methods used and systems of

Films and American Popular Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Films and American Popular Culture - Essay Example This article is relevant to my topic, because it analyzes the negative effects of the mainstreaming of rap music on the goals of rappers. Blair showed concern for the commercialization of rap music, because commercialization has historically benefitted white firms more and diluted the genuineness of black rap music. He narrated the history of rap in the U.S. He argued that Marxian hegemony theory can best explain how mainstream black rap has become a tool for the elite to propagate their own interests and goals. This is a good article, because it explores the theoretical underpinnings of commercializing black rap. It directly answers the research question also on the challenges of rap music. Blair’s findings that commercialization is not an absolute good for black rappers contradicts the implications of the findings of Hunnicutt and Andrews, because in their study, black rappers use mainstream music to broaden their prominence and audiences. Hence, for Hunnicutt and Andrews, m ainstreaming black rap can also indicate the acknowledgement of the invisible voices of low-income, young, black men. Deflem, M. (2001). Rap, rock and censorship: Popular culture and the technologies of justice. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Law and Society Association, Chicago, May 27-30, 1993. Retrieved March 12, 2011, from http://www.cas.sc.edu/socy/faculty/deflem/zzcens97.htm The source came from a paper presented at the annual meeting of the Law and Society Association, Chicago, May 27-30, 1993, so it is trusted as a scholarly article. This source is relevant, because it examines how popular music has been put on trial, because of its deviant messages. Deflem reviewed literature on music censorship and its effects on the development of rap music and other forms of popular music. Findings demonstrated that the law has been used to regulate social processes and institutions, but the history of music censorship demonstrated that the law and law enforcement could not significantly impact and limit musical expressions, mainly because of the First Amendment protection. The strength of this article is that it answers both research questions. Its weakness is its focus on the legal history of music censorship. This article has the same findings as Blair, in that dominant social institutions and tools are being used to limit or crush the social, economic, cultural, and political messages of black rap music. Hunnicutt, G. & Andrews, K. H. (2009).Tragic narratives in popular culture: Depictions of homicide in rap music. Sociological Forum, 24 (3), 611-630. The source came from a peer-reviewed journal, so it is trusted as a scholarly article. It is important to the research, because it answers the question about the goals of rap music. They explored homicide themes in rap lyrics across the period 1989–2000 and used the framework of cultural criminology. Their sampling included 360 titles, where they took the first top 30 songs for each year. Find ings showed three categories: 1) exaltation of killing, 2) moralizing tales about the destruction of violent death and the need for change in society, and ? or 3) homicide used as a figure of speech for being a â€Å"bigger† or more popular rapper. Some songs cautioned about the consequences of leading a criminal life, while others remarked on the power structure, and situations of preserving respect, zero tolerance, and vengeance. Homicide is also surprisingly gendered, with men killing men. The

Steps in the Medical Billing Process Essay Example for Free

Steps in the Medical Billing Process Essay The medical billing process and all of the functions that pertain to it are the responsibilities of the medical insurance specialist. It addresses all tasks that will be performed by the administrative staff members during the medical billing process. These functions are typically handled by front office staff members such as the receptionist (registration) and scheduling. Here are ten steps that will be explained which are the responsibility of the medical the medical insurance specialist. Step 1: Preregister patients * There are two main tasks that are involved when patients are at the preregistration period of their initial visit. These tasks include scheduling and bringing up to date any appointments that they may have. Step 2: Establish financial responsibility for visits * This is a very important step because it involves the determining of who is financially responsible for the visit. It also is used to establish what services may be covered under the type of insurance they have, along with payment options plan options if any, and what types may be available to the patient. Step 3: Check in patients * This step is used to check in patients, this is also the point at which new patients will provide information about themselves. A complete and detailed demographic review of their medical information will be collected at this time by the front desk. When returning patients arrive, they are asked to review the information and provide changes, if any. Step 4: Check out patients * The check-out procedure follows when the patient is done and ready to leave, once the physician and has given the patient their diagnosis and other procedures are complete. This is also the step in the visit where all expenses of the visit are tallied and the patient is brought to awareness of the amount owed in their ledger. Step 5: Review coding compliance * This area is formatted so that all official requirements are met. Meaning all official guidelines that are assigned to the codes will be followed to their standard purpose. Checking for errors when codes are assigned once diagnosis and procedures are selected is critical at this time so the patient will able to understand their charges. Step 6: Check billing compliance * Most medical practices have a standard set of fees listed, and each visit is related to a specific procedure code. Although each code is not necessarily billable, there are separate fees associated with each of the codes that are. Knowing the codes and the procedure that goes with it is important so that the correct charges are applied and the guidelines are still being followed. Step 7: Prepare and transmit claims * A claim is meant to communicate any information about the patient diagnosis given by their physician, it may also be used for the reimbursement of services that have been rendered. Most practices prepare the claim and send them off electronically. Step 8: Monitor payer adjudication * Here all procedures are listed and monitored, and any unpaid charges are explained. The codes on the payment transactions are viewed to make sure they match the on the claim form, and the payment listed for each procedure is correct in accordance to the contract with the payer Step 9: General patient statements * This procedure breaks down what bills will be covered by the insurance plan and what bills are expected to be covered by the patient. It will provide the patient with the service dates for each fee, and when and how much they are expected to pay for the services. Step 10: Follow up patient payments and handle collections * Patient medical records and financial records are filed and retained in accordance to the medical practice’s policy. They are regularly reviewed and analyzed to see if their financial responsibilities have been met. Federal and State regulations govern what documents are to be kept, and the amount of time. Reference Part 1: Chapter 1 Working with Medical Insurance and Billing pp. 16-21

An Inquiry Into Pigou And Welfare Economics Economics Essay

An Inquiry Into Pigou And Welfare Economics Economics Essay Arthur Cecil Pigou (1877-1959) was among the last in the long line of classical economists associated with the Cambridge School. Pigou first entered Kings College, Cambridge on a Minor Scholarship in History and Modern Languages (1896). Observing his palpable brilliance, Alfred Marshall and Henry Sidgwick together encouraged him to pour his academic vigour into the study of political economy (Collard, 1981). Although significantly influenced by Henry Sidgwick, Pigou was foremost Marshalls disciple and is often considered the embodiment and extension of Marshall himself (Walker, 1989). Like Marshall, Pigou was attracted to the practical value of economics and believed the main purpose of learning economics was to be able to see through the bogus economic arguments of politicians (Champernowne, 1959: 264); he believed economics to be an instrument for social betterment not intellectual gymnastics. The numerous works by Pigou cover various fields of economic thought. Pigous marked interest in how government policy could increase national well-being? is apparent throughout his work and led him to invented much of modern public finance especially arguments and rationale for government intervention in the economy (Pressman, 1999). Furthermore, his notable contribution, Economics of Welfare (1932) occupies a unique position in the history of economic thought and has earned him recognition as the father of modern welfare economics (Groenewegen, 2003). A study into Pigous writings on the economics of welfare requires one to be selective due to the wide-ranging scope of topics that may be covered; this paper will therefore concentrate on the theoretical backbone of Pigous work and aim to analyse different critiques of his theory of welfare in Section I. Section II will consider the foundations of and influences on Pigous work and explore criticisms of a lack of originality in his writ ings. Finally, in Section III, we will investigate the Pigous position on government intervention and analyse his suggested policy prescriptions. SECTION I Welfare economics is concerned to investigate the dominant influence through which the economic welfare of the world, or of a particular country, is likely to be increased. The hope of those who pursue it is to suggest lines of action or non-action on the part of the State or of private persons that might foster such influences (Pigou 1951: 287) Welfare economics is a normative subject, distinct from positive economics. Whilst the theoretical elements of positive economics provide theorems that can be tested, normative economics and the propositions of welfare economics have altogether a very different content (Graff, 1957: 2). The difference between normative and positive theory becomes apparent when we attempt to determine whether welfare actually increases or not; analysis of a positive theory requires testing of its conclusions which are clearly observable, conversely to test a normative theory of welfare one must look to test its assumptions rather than conclusions since welfare is not an observable quantity. Thus the assumptions attached to a normative theory must be carefully and thoroughly scrutinised and the credibility of a theory of welfare depends on how realistic and relevant its assumptions are (Graff, 1957: 3). This section will, in turn analyse the major assumptions made by Pigou for the development of his co ncepts of economic welfare and national dividend which are key to his theory. Economic Welfare Pigou defined economic welfare subjectively as quantities of satisfaction or states of consciousnessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[with] psychic returns of satisfaction, (Pigou 1926: 10). Recognising that subsequent investigation into the causes that could affect welfare would be impracticable, he limits the scope of the inquiry to that part of social welfare that can be brought directly or indirectly into relation with the measuring-rod of money (Pigou 1926: 11). To justify the restrictions on his scope of elements compiling the social welfare he postulates that since a persons income is an observable money value, it could be inferred that, under certain conditions, people could enjoy a level of material welfare that could be purchased by their income (Mishan, 1969). The connection between increased income and the other elements of welfare is much harder to define therefore Pigou explicitly recognises that since economic welfare is only a part of welfare as a wholeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦so that a given change in economic welfare will seldom synchronise with an equal welfare as a whole (Pigou, 1926: 12). Thus, although a change in economic welfare may not measure the change in total welfare, it may always affect the change therefore Pigou concludes that economic welfare and total welfare are positively related (Durlauf and Blume, 2008). UTILITY DEBATE? Doesnt he assume something stupid about utility interpersonal utility or something? National Dividend The conception of the National Dividend is not an academic toy, but a practical instrument of great power designed for service in the concrete solution of social problems (Pigou, 1912: 493) In order to predict the effects of policies on material welfare at the aggregate level, an aggregate measure was required. Pigou identified the national dividend as the appropriate aggregate measure suggesting that economic causes act on the economic welfare of any country, not directly, but through the making and using of the objective counterpart of economic welfare which the economists call the national dividend (Pigou, 1926: 31). The national dividend is described as the flow of goods and services annually produced after maintaining capital intact and is a key concept for Pigous analyses of how policies or institutions affect economic welfare (Scott, 1984: 59). Pigou outlines the two criteria for detecting improvements in social welfare which reflect the importance of this key concept to his theory of welfare; firstly increases in the value of national dividend, provided the share for the poor is not thereby reduced, will result in an increase in social welfare. Secondly, transfe rs from the rich to the poor without any reduction in the national dividend will also yield higher social welfare (Pigou, 1926). Several critics have voiced opposition to Pigous definition of national dividend specifically on the issue of maintaining capital intact.  [1]  He states that if the quantity of every unit of a countrys capital stock remains unchanged over a certain period, then even is the money value has increased/decreased, the total capital stock has been exactly maintained. He argues that changes in the money value of the stock due to general price changes or changes in the rates of interest are irrelevant to the national dividend (Scott, 1984: 60). Only a decline in the physical quantity of capital has to be made good (or replaced) with new capital of the same value (provided the valuation is made when the deterioration actually takes place) and depreciation due to interest rates or price changes are irrelevant (Pigou, 1926: 46). The national income in any period is therefore the sum of consumption and gross investment minus that portion of gross investment necessary to maintain capital int act (Scott, 1984; Pigou, 1926). Myint (1948) highlights the inadequacies of transposing this concept of maintaining capital intact (which is essentially a physical level of analysis) to derive the value of capital from expected value of income yielded (essentially a subjective level of analysis) by merely making good the physical wear and tear (Myint, 1948: 174). He finds fault with the fact that depreciation (due to obsolescence  [2]  ) must be allowed for even if capital goods are in perfect condition. This issue also sparked a heated debate between Hayek (1941) and Pigou (1941) in which Hicks (1942) also intervened. Hayek attacked Pigou on this point stating, what is meant by maintaining capital intact [according to Pigou] consists in effect of the suggestion that for this purpose we should disregard obsolescence [whether it is due to foreseeable or unforeseeable causes] and require merely that such losses of value of the existing stock of capital goods be made good as are due to physical wear and tear (Haye k, 1941: 276). Hayek finds Pigous procedure neither useful theoretically nor in actual practice (Hayek, 1941: 276). The root of the disagreement lies in their different conceptions of depreciation; while Pigou maintains that only a decline in the present value of capital due to factors which affect the expected quantity is relevant whilst Hayek argues the the real problem of maintaining capital intact arises not after such losses have been made, but when the entrepreneur plans his investment (Hayek, 1941: thus a decline in expected quantity will count as depreciation regardless of whether it is due to factors affecting expected quantity or prices (Hill, 1999: 2). While Hayeks biting criticism seemingly undermines Pigous conception of national dividend, Scott (1984) contends both arguments are in fact sound and it is the purpose for which the definition is of critical importance; whilst Pigou was concerned with net social income, Hayek was referring essentially to individual people o r firms. READ HICKS ADDITION TO THE DEBATE AND ADD IN WHAT HE SAYS ABOUT THE DIFFERENCE IN PURPOSES FOR THE CONCEPT. SECTION II When a man sets out upon any course of inquiry, the object of his search may be either light or fruit either knowledge for its own sake or knowledge for the sake of good things to which it leads, (Pigou, 1926: 3) Pigou is widely considered the father of modern welfare economics and the basic concepts of early welfare theory are attributed to his work, Economics of Welfare (1926). However, there are commentators who speculate that no matter how innovative Pigou may have been, many of his major theoretical contributions to welfare analysis lacked originality and were based on pre-Marshallian concepts; ODonnell (1979) implies Henry Sidgwick is a major influence who is not attributed sufficient credit. ODonnell (1979) argues that as a firm follower of Marshall, Pigou utilised his marginal analyses of market processes. However, they differed on their beliefs in the ability of competitive markets and economic freedom to stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty; Marshall was confident that competitive markets, left alone, would lead to efficient allocation and that government intervention would create so many disincentives that it may cause more harm than good (Walker, 1989). Conversely Pigou argued that fairness is only to be achieved through extensive government intervention. Moreover, when Pigou (1926, 1928) sought to formalise the problems of market failure and the appropriate government solutions, he turned to Sigdwicks earlier propositions on government intervention. More than half a century before Pigou, Sidgwick and J. S. Mill initiated the transition from the non-interventionist approach of the classical tradition to the more interventionist orientation that characterised neoclassical welfare theory and influenced Pigous theory of welfare (Medema, 2007). Subsequently it is argued that in defining welfare and the general qualifications for a welfare criterion (wherein the similarities between basic welfare considerations of Pigou and Sidgwick are obvious), Pigou is not original (ODonnell, 1979). He was, however, genuinely innovative in introducing the terms Marginal Social Net Product (MSNP) and Marginal Private Net Product (MPNP); although Sidgwick (1897) expressed similar conclusions about divergences between private and social benefits marginal considerations were not part of his analysis and his generalised concept was not as concise as Pigous (ODonnell, 1979). Therefore, whilst Pigous contribution to welfare economics is undeniable, he is criticised for developing what is essentially a synthesis of ideas and analyses from Marshall and Sidgwick. Yet, if we again invoke the purpose for his inquiry and his beliefs about the practical use of economics, the fruits of his contribution yielded an expansive literature on not only welfare economics but also public finance and environmental economics for which he is undeniably responsible; the purpose isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that the fabric of theory shall be a yielding garment, fitting the varied and complex reality of economic life as closely as is demanded by the criterion that the conclusions to which the theory leads shall be both useful and general (Young, 1913: 686). SECTION III The working of self-interest is generally beneficent, not because of some natural coincidence between the self-interest of each and the good of all, but because human institutions are arranged so as to compel self-interest to work in directions in which it will be beneficent (Cannan in Pigou, 1926: 130) We move now to the subject of government intervention in the economy. In his relatively unknown essay on State Action and Laissez-Faire Pigou stated the real question is not whether the State should act or not, but on what principles, in what degree and over what departments of economic life its action should be carried on (Pigou in Medema, 2009: 65). In Economics of Welfare (1926) Pigou controversially advocates the need for government intervention in the form of taxes and bounties to correct for market failures and our defective telescopic faculty. External Economies In Economics of Welfare (1926) Pigou originated the innovative theoretical distinction between social and private benefits and costs, illustrating how private production costs for a firm do not necessarily reflect total social costs of production. This analysis formed the basis for much of the analysis in modern environmental economics (Myint 1948). He states that when value of MSNP (marginal physical product of the factor as appropriated by the producer * market price of product) is greater than MSNP (total of products and services from employment of the additional factor no matter to whom they may accrue) external economies exist and the government must intervene in the market to ensure the industry contracts the optimum output may be reached and economic welfare may thus be maximised (Pigou, 1926). Coase what coase said economists have tended to overestimate the advantages of government intervention and that such intervention may not actually be desirable in certain situations? Monopolies Pigou says that monopolies are bad and that governments should intervene to make sure they dont overrun? Something like this? But people argue against that and say that this is not good and his assumptions are wrong! CONCLUSION General optimum and national dividend are major elements that constitute his theory of welfare. Section I National Dividend National Dividend and General Optimum National Dividend he outlines the national dividend which is defined as _______. Is very important because it is the measure he outlines as the aggregate indicator of welfare. Discussion Hayek criticised his conception of the national dividend because of his assumption of Maintaining capital intact stating that __________________ General Optimum and Criterion for welfare maximisation He says that anything that increases the national dividend, so long as it doesnt reduce the share going to the poor will increase total welfare and anything that increases the share of the poor so long as it doesnt affect the national dividend, will also increase welfare. Discussion Buchanan (http://www.heinonline.org.ezproxy.webfeat.lib.ed.ac.uk/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/jlecono2id=1size=2collection=journalsindex=journals/jlecono#126) outlines the difference between Pigous optimum and Paretos optimum ODonnell criticises Pigou for lack of originality, claiming that he has basically created a synthesis of Pre-Marshallian ideas and Marshallian analysis (the only thing original being his contribution of MSNP and MPNP). Myint criticises Pigou for trying to impose Marshalls physical analysis onto what should be a subjective level of analysis: since welfare theory, as argued by graff, is a normative theory. Section II External Effects Pigou basically says that private firms do not always take into account the Monopolies MONOPOLIES 6. I do not propose to say very much in this paper about the welfare economics of monopoly and imperfect competition, for this is altogether too large a subject to be capable of useful treat- ment on the scale here available. A very large part of the estab- lished theory of imperfect competition falls under the head of welfare economics, and it is actually much the strongest part of the theory which does so. Considered as a branch of positive economics, the theory of imperfect competition is even now not very convincing; the assumption that the individual producer has a clear idea of the demand curve confronting him has been justifiably questioned, and the presence of intractable elements of oligopoly in most markets has been justifiably suspected. When it is considered as a branch of welfare economics, the theory of imperfect competition has a much clearer status. Oligopoly and monopolistic competition fall into their places as reasons for the inequality between price and marginal c ost, whose consequences are then a most fertile field for study along welfare lines. It is perhaps rather to be regretted that modern theories of imperfect competition have not been cast more overtly into this form; for the general apparatus of welfare economics would have made it possible to state some of the most important pro- positions in a more guarded way than usual. Take, for example, the very important question of the optimum number of firms in an imperfectly competitive industry, which is so near the centre of modern discussion. Since (ex hypothesi) the different firms are producing products which are economicaly distinguishable, the question is one of those which falls under the heading of our third set of optimum conditions-the totl conditions; we have to ask whether a reduction in the number of products would be conducive to a movement towards the optimum. Suppose then that a particular firm is closed down. The loss involved im its cessation is measured by the compensati on which would have to be given to consumers to make up for their loss of the opportunity to consume the missing product, plus the compensation which would have to be given to producers to make up for the excess of their earnings in this use over what they could earn in other uses. The loss is therefore measured by Marshalls Surplus (Consumers Surplus 1 plus Producers Surplus). Under conditions of perfect competition, this loss is a net loss. For when the factors are transferred to other uses, they will have to be scattered about at the margins of those uses; and (since the earnings of a factor equal the value of its marginal product) the additional production made possible by the use of the factors in these new places is equal in value to the earnings of the factors (already accounted for). Under perfect competition, the marginal productivity law ensures that there is no producers surplus generated at the new margins; while, since the marginal unit of any commodity is worth no more than what is paid for it, there can be no consumers surplus either. Thus there is nothing to set against the initial loss; there cannot be a movement towards the optimum if the number of products is reduced. But if competition is imperfect, there is something to set on the other side. The earnings of a factor are now less than the value of its marginal product by an amount which varies with the degree of monopolistic exploitation; and therefore the increment to production which can be secured by using the factors at other margins is worth more than the earnings of the factors. There is a producers surplus, even at the margin, and this producers surplus may outweigh the initial loss. The general condition for a particular firm to be such that its existence is compatible with the optimum is that the sum of the consumers and producers surpluses generated by its activities must be greater than the producers surplus which would be generated by employing its factors (and exploiting them) elsewhere. The rule usually given is a special case of this general rule. If entry to the industry is free, price equals average cost, and the producers surplus generated by the firm as a whole can be neglected. If the products of the different firms are very cl ose substitutes, or merely distinguished by irrational pre- ferences, consumers surplus can perhaps be neglected as well. With these simplifications, the number of firms in an impe competitive industry is always excessive, so long as price is greater than marginal cost anywhere in the industry. (Or, if we can retain the identity of price with average cost, the number of firms is excessive until average cost is reduced to a minimum.) These, however, are simplifications; it is not always true that the number of firms in an imperfectly competitive industry is excessive, though very often it may be. Before recommending in practice a policy of shutting down redundant firms, we ought to be sure that the full condition is satisfied; and we ought to be very sure that the discarded factors will in fact be transferred to more productive uses. In a world where the most the economist can hope for is that he will be listened to occasionallY, that is not always so certain. In the absence of costs of movement the allocation of resources by competitive markets achieves universally equal marginal private net products. However, the production of ideal output requires equality of marginal social net products. Where private and social net products diverge, there is a prima facie case for reallocation of resources (Economics of welfare page 136) The Economics of Welfare Pigous major work, Wealth and Welfare (1912) and Economics of Welfare (1920), developed Alfred Marshalls concept of externalities (see Pigou, 1920), costs imposed or benefits conferred on others that are not taken into account by the person taking the action. Pigou attributed welfare gains to the greater marginal utility a dollar of income had for the poor compared to the rich; a transfer of income from rich to poor increased total utility that could also be defined as increased quality of life. Pigou also argued that welfare gains came from improving the quality of the work force through changes in the distribution of income or by improved working conditions. He argued that the existence of externalities was sufficient justification for government intervention. The reason was that if someone was creating a negative externality, such as pollution, he would engage in too much of the activity that generated the externality. Someone creating a positive externality, say, by educating himself and thus making himself more interesting to other people, would not invest enough in his education because he would not perceive the value to himself as being as great as the value to society. To discourage the activity that caused the negative externality, Pigou advocated a tax on the activity. To encourage the activity that created the positive externality, he advocated a subsidy. These are now called Pigovian (or Pigovian) taxes and subsidies. Let us now consider two excerpts that typify Pigous social policy, mentioned above: One person A, in the course of rendering some service, for which payments is made, to a second person B, incidentally also renders services or disservices to other personsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ of such sort that payment cannot be exacted from benefited parties or compensation enforced on behalf of the injured parties (Pigou 1932). It is possible for the State to remove the divergence [between private and social net product] through bounties and taxes (Pigou 1932). In the Economics of Welfare, Pigou says that his aim is to ascertain how far the free play of self-interest, acting under the existing legal system, tends to distribute the countrys resources in the way most favorable to the production of a large national dividend, and how far it is feasible for State action to improve upon natural tendencies. He starts by referring to optimistic followers of the classical economists who have argued that the value of production would be maximized if the government refrained from any interference in the economic system and the economic arrangements were those which came about naturally (Pigou 1932). Pigou goes on to say that if self-interest does promote economic welfare, it is because human institutions have been devised to make it so. He concludes: But even in the most advanced States there are failures and imperfections there are many obstacles that prevent a communitys resources from being distributed in the most efficient way. The study of these constitutes our present problem its purpose is essentially practical. It seeks to bring into clearer light some of the ways in which it now is, or eventually may become, feasible for governments to control the play of economic forces in such wise as to promote the economic welfare, and through that, the total welfare, of their citizens as a whole (Pigou 1932). Pigous thoughts are further elucidated: Some have argued that no State action is needed. But the system has performed as well as it has because of State action: Nonetheless, there are still imperfections. it might happen that costs are thrown upon people not directly concerned, through, say, uncompensated damage done to surrounding woods by sparks from railway engines. All such effects must be included-some of them will be positive, others negative elements-in reckoning up the social net product of the marginal increment of any volume of resources turned into any use or place (Pigou 1932) To illustrate this discussion further, let us consider an example: Suppose a paper mill was being planned on a certain river and an economist was given all facts about the river-in-question and told that a paper mill was to be sited so that it could discharge oxygen-consuming waste into the river. Suppose further that the economist was asked to analyze the situation, offer a policy for siting the mill, and comment on the practical aspects of adopting the policy proposal as a general rule. The first approach involves an externality analysis, where the paper mill pollutes the river, imposing an unwanted cost on society, a cost that does not enter the mill owners profit calculations. This is the problem of social cost. Following this line of inquiry, failure to consider the external cost leads to too much paper and too little environmental quality. This economist would be using an analytical framework developed by A. C. Pigou who would argue that pollution generates a social cost that should be dealt with by the central government. He would propose a system of taxes, bounties, and regulations for resolving the problem. Most likely, the economist using this framework would call for some form of effluent taxes or regulation to control the mills discharge. Pigous solution spoke of market failure and the need for a central authority to fine-tune markets so that the appropriate level of pollution would emerge. This approach called for collection of complicated and rapidly changing information, translating the information into a tax or regulation, and imposing the tax or rule on the polluter. In fact, modern environmental economics began with the work of Arthur Pigou, who developed the analysis of externalities. His name is attached to the traditional policy proposal, Pigouvian taxes on polluting activities, equal to the value of the damages. Coases alternative solution Pigous approach came under attack from Lionel Robbins and Frank Knight. The New Welfare Economics that arose in the late 1930s dispensed with much of Pigous analytical toolbox. Later, the Public Choice theorists rejected Pigous approach for its naive benevolent despot assumption. Finally, Nobel Laureate Ronald Coase demonstrated that efficient outcomes could be generated without government intervention when property rights are clearly defined. Coase presents his case in the article The Problem of Social Cost (1960). To explain this alternative let us continue with the paper mill example. There is a second approach likely taken. In this line of thinking the economist considers the paper mill and others who wish to consume or enjoy water quality as part of a competitive market where people bargain for the use of rights to scarce property. This analysis has nothing to do with polluters imposing cost on society, but everything to do with competing demands for use of an asset. If rights to the asset are defined and assigned to members of the river-basin community, then those planning to build the paper mill must bargain with the rightholders to determine just how much, if any, waste will discharge into the river. If the rights are held by the mill, then the existing communities along the river must bargain with the mill owner for rights to water quality. Again, bargaining determines the amount of discharge to the river. This approach relies on the work of Ronald Coase (1960). Using this framework, an economist might recommend a meeting of the mill owners and others who have access to the river. After organizing the parties, negotiations would ensue. If existing river users owned water-quality rights, the mill would have to buy the rights in order to discharge specified amounts of waste. If the mill had the right to pollute, existing river users would have to buy water quality from the mill, paying the mill to limit its discharges. In other words, Pigouvian taxes do embody the important principle that polluters should pay for the damages they inflict on society. But in both law and economics, a more conservative analysis has gained popularity. Legal scholar Ronald Coase argued that taxes and regulation might be unnecessary, since under some circumstances polluters and those harmed by pollution could engage in private negotiation to determine the appropriate compensation. While Pigous examples of externalities often involved simultaneous harms to large numbers of people, Coases examples tended to be localized, individual nuisances, where one persons behavior disturbed the immediate neighbors. The image of environmental externalities as localized nuisances serves to trivialize the real problems of widespread, collective threats to health and nature. Creative alternative readings of Coase have been suggested at times, but the dominant interpretation of his work has provided an intellectual basis for the retreat fr om regulation. Comparison of Pigous and Coases approaches Evidence of the record of Coases intellectual influence is seen in the count of citations to his 1960 article, which are shown in Yardley (1977). The citation data of Coases (1960) The Problem of Social Cost and Pigous (1932) The Economics of Welfare are superimposed on a count of Federal Register pages for the same years. The data mapping suggests several things. First, Pigous influence on academics seems to operate at a steady state. There is no evidence that Pigovians were responding to the growth of regulation occurring around them. The Coase citations indicate the reverse. References to his ideas seem to be a reaction to th