Host Country Political and Legal Environment Affect of Airasia

Organization AIRASIA Content a. Presentation b. Organization reference index c. Passage mode to global market (through trading, joint endeavor, diversifying, permitting, and so on) d. How do the worldwide market/culture, the board styles and business framework influence the organization execution? Do they need to modify/adjust their item or administrations to fit with the host nation showcase needs? How does the organization face the opposition? e. How does a host nation political and global lawful condition or exchange hindrance influence the Malaysian organizations in their universal advertising activities?Bagaimana sebuah negara tuan rumah persekitaran politik dan antarabangsa undang-undang atau perdagangan halangan menjejaskan syarikat-syarikat Malaysia dalam aktiviti pemasaran antarabangsa mereka? Bagaimana sebuah negara persekitaran politik dan undang2 antarabangsa memberi kesan kepada syarikat Malaysia dalam aktiviti pemasaran antarabangsa mereka? f. SWOT investigation of the organization in term of their 4 Ps (item, value, advancement and spot) g. Any others extra data h. End I. References a,b,h †section 1 c †section 2 d †section 3 e †part 4(fathi) †section 5 every individual pick one to do it n leave a remark which part u all do yea†¦ tq BUS 488 Strategy †T01 Question 1 AirAsia, which is one of the most punctual minimal effort bearers (LCC) in Asia, has become a LCC since 2001. Up until this point, it has extended its system from Malaysia to Thailand to Singapore, Macau and even the Mainland China in 2006. So, Air Asia â€Å"jumped out† from an intra-Malaysia and Thailand market to a â€Å"real Air Asia† in the mainland. Subsequently, what are the conceivable center capabilities to guarantee that there is quantum jump to success?The inside examination on the organization underneath will respond to the inquiry. Assets, Capabilities and Core Competencies Analysis a)Accounting Ratio Analysis In 2004, Air As ia’s profit edge before intrigue and expenses (16. 8), return on capital utilized (14. 6) and profit for value (37. 7) bookkeeping proportions were over the business normal †14. 5 is the business normal for profit edge, 11. 6 for return on capital utilized and 21. 2 for return on value. This better than expected outcomes shows that the organization has been overseen well and in this manner can accomplish high better than expected returns.The increment in current proportion from 1. 24 (US$49. 206 million/US$39. 643 million)to 5. 60 (US$230. 024 million/US$41. 099 million) additionally fills in as a sure sponsor to speculators and investors in that Air Asia’s dissolvability had fortified and accordingly can satisfy its obligation commitments. Truth be told, the obligation to-resource proportion over the most recent 5 years was low and diminishing as well. In actuality, in 2005, it was simply 0. 14, which was nearly lower than many ease bearers. b) Finance Resources Air Asia’s net benefit finishing Jun 2005 was accounted for US$29. million, a 126%increase year-on-year. The finish of June 2005 money related rundown demonstrated that Air Asia, the main ease aircraft in Asia, had a tremendous save (bank and money adjusts) of US$86. 6million. This is the company’s quality as not very many minimal effort carriers of comparative size have such enormous stores. With such tremendous holds and low obligation to-resource proportion, Air Asia is subsequently equipped for producing inside assets to back any development. It is absolutely Air Asia’s quality. c)Organization Design and Organizational ResourcesAir Asia’s authoritative structure is somewhat straightforward and level as it includes a gathering of staff in the organization answering to one supervisor. This serves Air Asia well as theâ business requires a structure with less degrees of the executives in order to accomplish more consistency and cost decrease. Likewise, t he cost authority procedure that the organization embraced additionally permits Air Asia to concentrate all the more strongly on territories, for example, in/out-bound coordinations, activities, advertising, administrations and clients. This thusly assists with making collaboration and capacity to convey the full range of ease bearer business. ) Physical Resources Despite having a huge armada of Boeing 737 airplane for activity, Air Asia despite everything keeps on contributing intensely. This incorporates the obtaining of more eco-friendly airplane (A320) with the goal that the organization can have adequate ability to meet the developing needs and requests of their clients just as to keep on keeping its cost low. The new airplane can bring down fuel use by about 12%, a significant cost sparing, as fuel accounted forâ almost half of the absolute working expenses for the organization over some undefined time frame. ) Technological Resources Air Asia was the principal carrier in Sou theast Asia to use e-tagging with the goal that conventional trip specialists can be avoided. This execution spares the expense of issuingâ physical tickets and disposes of the requirement for enormous and costly reserving and reservation frameworks. To additionally abuse innovations, AirAsia made it workable for clients toâ purchase tickets either from post workplaces or assigned bank employee (ATM) machines.In short, Air Asia's quality is likewise about the capacity to use on advances well and in front of its rivals to build deals and lower costs. HR Management Although the representatives were not unionized and the pay rates offered by the organization were beneath those of its adversaries, AirAsia is as yet ready to keep its work power spurred by giving a compensation strategy that is serious and alluring. Forâ instance, all representatives are offered a wide scope of motivating forces that incorporates efficiency and execution based rewards, offer of offers or stock options. To give furtherâ aircrew and lodge impetuses, AirAsia likewise embraced a segment pay strategy that gives additional motivators and in this way this brought about the organization requiring less groups per flight (106 perâ aircraft) when contrasted with other minimal effort carriers (110 for every airplane). Every one of these endeavors not just assisted with improving profitability, it additionally further fortified boss worker connections. In outline, human asset the executives, especially the capacity to inspire and improve efficiency of the staff is unquestionably Air Asia’s quality. g) Innovation Resources and Product DevelopmentSo far, AirAsia has figured out how to structure its airplane lodges that can limit wearâ and tear, cleaning time and cost. This inventive work takes into consideration snappier turnaroundsâ between flights and helps increment incomes. What's more, AirAsia is likewise ready to use on creative plans to get considerable subordinate incomes from extra administrations. Forâ instance, the organizations additionally have their own marked Visa and offers corporate travel administrations. Subsequently, it likewise creates airplane promoting by changing over its planes into â€Å"flying billboards†.The capacity to advance and concoct one of a kind developments to lowerâ costs and expand incomes shows that AirAsia has generous quality development assets that are significant. h) Reputational Resources Air Asia’s achievement has been generally perceived. For example, in 2003, it was named the â€Å"Developing Airline of the Year† (via Air fund Journal) and the â€Å"Asia Pacific Airline of the Year† (by Center for Asia Pacific Aviation, CAPA). In 2004 and 2005, the organization additionally won a few esteemed honors. Likewise, the company’s CEO, Tony Fernandez has additionally won a few recognitions.Most strikingly, the International Herald Tribune recorded Mr. Tony Fernandez in its Visionaries and Leadership arrangement in 2003. Hewas therefore named the â€Å"Asia Pacific Aviation Executive of the Year† in 2004 and2005 (by CAPA) and is one of the 25 stars of Asia (by Business week). With only 3 years into activities, AirAsia figured out how to be recorded openly in November 2004 with help from financiers and investors. AirAsia was in this way named as one of the â€Å"Best Newly Listed Companies† and Asia’s â€Å"Best Managed Company in the Airlines and Aviation Sector by Euro cash after its IPO.Given the positive view of Air Asia’s notoriety, the brand name is unquestionably the company’s qualities. i)Risk Management when all is said in done, the sorts of dangers AirAsia faces include: (1) unadulterated hazard; (2) value hazard; and (3) credit chance. AirAsia bought protection arrangements to relieve unadulterated hazard in spite of the fact that it is done and worked a piece diversely as it embraces a coordinated methodology chance administration that goes past the customary boundaries of what is insurable. For example, when AirAsia buys protection any approaches to guarantee against unadulterated hazard, it likewise puts forth a cognizant attempt to procure them at a much lower rate lower than other LCCs.In expansion, to moderate value chance, AirAsia supported fuel costs at US$42 a barrel for the main half ofâ 2005, which was considerably lower than the cost per barrel of US$70 in the late 2005. AirAsia has little introduction to acknowledge hazard as it doesn't loan cash to any outside gatherings. Even better, clients who wish to buy their air tickets need to make installment very quickly after booking. Henceforth, this takes out credit chance completely. Up until this point, Air Asia’s comprehensive way to deal with chance administration adequately is seen well by its partners more often than not, particularly the investors. ) Logistics This includes all zones of getting, putting away of data sour ces when creating yields. Up until now, AirAsia just works on a solitary sort of airplane, the Boeing 737-300. In view of a Report distributed by Aero Connections in 2004, that specific model was the top of the line business fly of all occasions because of its proficiency and cost viability. AirAsia likewise has1382 representatives and they got appropriate hands on preparing workshops so they canâ perform various jobs viably inside a straightforward and level association structure. ) Operations It forms contributions to give important items/administrations. AirAsia has consistently been

Essay --

Is human instinct on a very basic level fortunate or unfortunate? Mengzi contends for the intuitive decency of human instinct; in any case, concedes our inalienable goodness must be supported through legitimacy. Mengzi regards nature as one’s characteristic â€Å"potential, tendencies, or capacities† (Liu 68). It is essential to note, be that as it may, that he just perspectives nature as the start. Mengzi accepts that the manner in which we act as develop people is the consequence of how fruitful we are in satisfying our inclination. Different Confucians, as Xunxi, contended â€Å"human nature is terrible; his decency is the consequence of man’s intentional effort† (86); in any case, Mengzi accepted the in opposition to be valid. As indicated by Mengzi, nature alludes to the regular tendencies of people. In this manner, any improvement the other way is an immediate outcome of some type of outer upgrades. Mengzi sees nature as a â€Å"species-explicit notion† (68) that different us from lesser creatures. All the more explicitly, people are particular from creatures since they are brought into the world with moral temperances. Mengzi accepted that since all people have a place with similar animal groups, all people have a similar general nature. He goes further by guaranteeing that because of our aggregate all inclusive nature, any distinctions exhibited by develop people are inferable from a â€Å"external situation and individual effort† (69). For the motivations behind this paper, let us accept that Mengzi is right in his contention for the intrinsic decency of human instinct. So if people normally incline toward temperance and all have the sprouts of profound quality inside, what excuses the irregularity between instinctual goodness and showed disagreeableness? In spite of the fact that Mengzi features the heart/brain of our inclination wants moral ethicalness, he likewise recognizes that â€Å"desire for physical solace and material g... ... cook. While the facts confirm that a human’s physical and organic traits are resolved naturally, no two people are really indistinguishable. That being stated, by what method can all human’s ethics be an organically decided consistent? It would be increasingly conceivable to believe that while people have the limit with regards to moral uprightness, the degree on which they can complete this limit varies as much between individuals as physical characteristics, for example, taste. This leads us to another analysis. The subsequent model is additionally imperfect. Consider the Iron Chef Bobby Flay. He is known for, in addition to other things, being a widely acclaimed culinary specialist just as a network show called BBQ with Bobby Flay. Albeit numerous individuals would see his cooking as astonishing, these preferences are not shared by every one of the (a vegan for instance). This is simply one more case of his defective conviction of a common and all inclusive human instinct.

The War in Iraq is Not Justifiable Essay -- Bush War Democracy Argumen

The War in Iraq isn't Justifiable A great many youngsters and ladies are sent abroad to be executed or harmed distinctly to return injured forever or in a final resting place. I recognize all in the military for their administration and I could never slight any warrior. Truth be told, my best friend?s sibling entered the United States Navy out of secondary school and has served three years up until now; he is in deployment ready serving on a plane carrying warship. I have similar emotions about the war in Iraq. I consistently wonder why a great many people, harmed or dead, may not have the foggiest idea about the reason for this war. In the same way as other Americans, I comprehended the explanation behind the attack of Afghanistan, yet the reason for this war has been blamed from the earliest starting point. An honest woman?s fiancã © doesn't have the right incredible an outside nation for bogus intentions. From the outset, our President told the residents of the United States that Iraq had weapons of mass decimati on. This has now been refuted. This leaves troops a great many miles from home battling in a new land for no reason. A large number of Americans were driven into this war under fake misrepresentations. I am in, and will consistently be in, bolster the United States Army and troops from each country, yet when thinking about the inquiry ?What was our motivation I can't ponder any answers. In the lamentable narrative Last Letters Home, the guardians, companions, and spouses of perished warriors, read the letters they got from their friends and family. This narrative, delivered by The New York Times related to HBO, recounts to the discouraging accounts of killed officers in Iraq. It gives a thought of what standard people in the equipped help experience consistently. Shelly, a twenty-year-old from New Berlin, Wisco... ...y the Answer?. MIT Press: 1997. ?Farenheit 9/11.? Dir. Michael Moore. Columbia Tristar. 2004 Hamilton, William. Who Voted for Hitler?. Princeton University Press. 1982. ?Saint.? Dir. Yimou Zhang. Buena Vista Home Vid. 2004. Kaiser, Davis. American Tradegy. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 2000. Logevall, Fredrik. Picking War. Berkeley: University of California Press. Mearsheimer, John and Stephen Walt. ? Iraq: An Unnecessary War.? FP January, February 2003. Postel, Danny. ?Realistpolitik.? Dispatches. May 2004: 11-13. ?Phenomenal: The 2000 Presidential Election.? Dir. Joan Sekler. Sony Pictures. 2002. Walt, Stephen. Transformation and War. Cornell University Press: 1997. E-hold Texts 1. Chalmer?s Johnsons?s Blowback 2. Lawrence Corb ? Rumsfeld?s Follies 3. Martin Peretz ? Without Sin

The Wasps Nest free essay sample

After an intensive perusing and examination of the sonnet, I have discovered that there exists together various basic topics and negating implications inside the sonnet; I accept the most conceivable and intermittent hypothesis is that this sonnet spins around the topic of importance, human instinct and dread of an approaching and looming risk. I have additionally observed that the subjects, tone and significance of the sonnet change all through the sonnet. From the outset â€in its beginning lines, 1 to 24-the sonnet gives off an impression of being tied in with nothing more major than the character’s unsettling influence at specific wasps which have decided to make his US post box their home. The sonnet at that point advances, as do its constantly moving tone and importance. In the wake of distinguishing the circumstance of the wasps’ home, the voice, at a certain point, appears to run into to some degree a contention where his standard sense, moral judgment and human instinct are secured a force battle of clashing considerations. As the sonnet at that point arrives at its last lines, there starts an unwinding of more profound, progressively concealed topics. Composed by James L Rosenberg, distributed in 1962, The Wasps Nest can be taken under a wide range of comments relying upon one’s view, all through my investigation I have attempted to pass on the same number of conceivable â€plausible-philosophies with regards to the poem’s individual and additionally co-usable components in the case of negating, concurring or underscoring in connection towards one another. One could take note of that the genuine importance of the sonnet is covered up inside the last seven lines of the thirty-one. Before the last seven lines; the total tone and motivation behind the sonnet shifts from the subject of a humble aggravation/minor unsettling influence into inquiries concerning disputable idea of the essentialness of presence. Rosenberg begins line 1 out of a superb portrayal which alludes towards specific wasps which have possessed his letter drop. Despite the fact that his depiction is applauding towards the wasps, his first indication of the affirmation of their reality as living animals; the primary indication of proof with respect to this can be found in line 9; ‘Their meager and their just home’ In saying this, Rosenberg, just because, gives the wasps’ presence a specific feeling of significance, by , as it were, representing the wasps in alluding to their homes as a ‘home’ as opposed to a home. This gives a fairly interchangeable undertone towards the sentiment of humankind, subsequently embodying the wasps with a greater amount of an equivalent human significance. Rosenberg proceeds with this impact in a few different lines all through the sonnet regardless of its moving subjects and tones. Proof of this can be found in the accompanying lines-24 to 26-: ‘Perhaps, they sense, I’ll never bargain the blow’ These two lines show clear ramifications made by Rosenberg to give the wasps greater affirmation by giving them a feeling of human judgment and insight. A similar impact can be found in lines 21-24: ‘And yet they appear to be Too profoundly and excessively furiously involved To try to join in. ’ The way that Rosenberg awards the wasps a feeling of judgment so that they saw a potential danger and are too occupied to even think about attending to it. The insignificant truth that the creator conceded them with the idea that they could secure themselves includes accentuation towards my past proclamation of the subject of affirmation. In lines 15-25, one can note to some degree a contention which shows up where the voice addresses his characteristic impulses to annihilate the wasps home (to discard an irritation and potential risk) with moral judgment and a more profound feeling of human instinct/feeling: ‘And I think They know my quality, Can check The peril of their work: One blow could pound them And their home; and I am not their companion. But then they appear to be Too profoundly and excessively wildly involved To try to join in. Maybe they sense I’ll never bargain the blow,’ Now the adjustment in tone and significance can be noted plainly. From observing the situation of these wasps and where they have chosen to awkwardly find their home to an examination between their reality and our own and the fragility of them two that we share. In these lines, the creator appears to relate and make to some degree a resemblance between our two universes: while the wasps’ home is delineated as little and delicate, the creator motioned an idea that in this universe, so is our own. While the wasps’ home is portrayed as little and delicate, Rosenberg movements an idea that in a universe so huge, everything could be similarly as little and delicate. He crossed over and related our reality to the wasps’, Introducing the resemblance that we are generally little creatures in universe so enormous, and in the event that he conveys a devastating hit to their house, is there not similarly as likely a likelihood that something much bigger smash our own, simply? That our general public could be a considerably bigger force’s wasps’ home? It is as indicated by my comprehension and investigation that there isn't sufficient proof to state with respect to whom the fundamental character/voice of the sonnet is. We can see that it is written in first individual account, however this gives no nsight towards the real character of this voice in the sonnet. The setting of the sonnet is suggested â€from lines 9 to 10-to be in the USA: ‘Neither the irritated dismay Of the US Mail’ Further ramifications concerning the setting of the sonnet give off an impression of being fairly obscure, despite the fact that I envis ioned it to be set in a normal American rural home as the man makes the considerations noted in the sonnet, he is gazing at his letter drop, he is pondering the delicacy of his reality. The sonnet by and large, albeit somewhat mind boggling all in all, doesn't contain numerous words which hold troublesome and complex importance. The implications and meanings of the words are somewhat clear in understanding to its prominent significations. The sonnet is by all accounts written in a style of free refrain, this can be demonstrated because of the way that it is one collection of composing; there are no verses. The length of the sentences differ from being long to short in an apparently arbitrary request, and can along these lines be legitimized as to matching with the sonnets subject in the manner that the whimsical sentence structure copies the fiery aerials of the wasps. The further enjambment and caesuras spread all through the sonnet could, as it were, underline a movement of smoothed out idea, in the sonnet. It very well may be said that it is composed just as one development of creating thought smoothing out from start to finish of the sonnet. I presume that after further examination of the sonnet, my belief systems and speculations with respect to the subject, tone and different elements which I have noted continue as before. I despite everything accept that the boldest subject portrayed is the topic of addressing criticalness and where our own stands known to mankind.

Grendels Mothers Attack :: Essays Papers

Grendel's Mother's Attack Grendel's mom, obscure to the Danes or Geats, is plotting to vindicate the passing of her child. After the festivals are over in Heorot and everyone is sleeping, Grendel's mom shows up out of her residence, the marsh. She enters the corridor where the warriors are resting. They wake so as to avert the assault with their blades yet the beast figures out how to escape with one casualty in her hooks (this is Aeschere). After she get away, the warriors understand that she has figured out how to take back Grendel's paw from where it has been hanging. The casualty is probably the nearest consultant, the man he cherished above all else men on earth. The lord brings Beowulf and his men. There's an inclination of edginess noticeable all around. We realize Beowulf understands that something is frightfully off-base - most likely he can hear the hubbub from the fundamental lobby however he likewise realizes that he must pass on certainty and discretion. Right now, the youthful warrior appears to be more shrewd and more develop than the maturing ruler. Beowulf is told by the King that Grendel's mom has vindicated the quarrel (Abrams, 44). The ruler, by and by, requests that Beowulf help him. Beowulf, after observing the ruler's condition, says: Distress not, insightful warrior. It is better for a man to retaliate for his companion than much grieve. Every one of us must anticipate his apocalypse life. Let him who may get wonder before death: that is best for the warrior after he has gone from life. Emerge, watchman of the realm, let us go without a moment's delay to look on the track of Grendel's kinfolk. On their way to the marsh, they find Aeschere's ridiculous head sitting on the bluff.

Political Parties and Interest Groups - Free Essay Example

United States of America has a two-party system. They are democratic party and a republicans party. Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton were the one to give birth to the countries first political parties in the United States. Hamilton led the federalist party and Jefferson led the democratic -republican party which was later shorten to democratic party. The federalist party did not last long and just disappeared. In order to challenge the democrats party, Whigs party came and later it faded away. Finally, a republican party were formed to challenge the democrats party. Since, then these two parties have managed to rule challenging each other in a different way. Political parties are the group of organization where their member is elected to hold the power in the government. Each of the candidate is chosen from their own political parties for the presidential election and whoever has the highest number of votes wins the election and runs for the president. Democratic and the Republican party are the only parties two win the presidential election from long time. They have lasted so long because of their remarkable abilities to change in the different periods of time. Particularly, during the crisis, both parties come along with reinventing new sources of support, new politics and new ideologies. These periods of party changes are described as party realignments. It is long lasting and produces fundamental changes in the parties affecting for years to come, their coalition, their governing philosophies and their chances of electoral success. In general, the aim of the political party is to elect their representative and carry out their partys policies in the long run. Interest groups are also known as pressure groups or lobbying groups. These are the groups where the members share a same goal and try to influence the government policy and their decision. The interest groups use various methods to achieve their desired common goal. One of the most important type is lobbying where different people, organization, private corporation, government officials and individuals engage themselves in influencing the governments plans and policies by sharing their interest as one. The interest groups also can support the candidates in an election by giving money, but it has to go through the PAC which stands for Political Action Committee. The maximum amount the PACs can contribute is $10,000 directly to the candidate. Resources and the incentives are the most important factors in creating an interest group. In general, there are two types of interest groups. They are Economic Group and a Noneconomic Group. Economic groups have built in resources and have great er access to the financial resources whereas Non-economic group are less organized and has a money problem. The United States has the greatest number of interest groups in the American politics. It is due to main structure of the United States political system. The largest type of interest groups represents the business firms like U.S. Chamber of Commerce which spends billions of dollars when it comes to lobbying. According to study.com, The interests groups do not want to operate the government and they do not put forward political candidates even though they support candidates who will promote their interest if elected or reelected. Interest groups are not like political parties who want to run and operate the government rather they want to influence the government by promoting a position on a specific area chosen by those individuals, organization, associations, officials. The area could be regarding the agriculture, gun control, business interest, environmental interest and so on. These interest groups have mainly two characteristics. They are pursuit of policy and the organized membe rship. In my point of view, political party has a greater influence on government policy. The main goal of the political party is to win the election and gain the control over the government by winning the election. They always have a duty to represent the people by providing different services health care, education, benefits and so on. The political parties in the United States are effectively well-organized. They fight for the benefit of the nation as a whole in a different way. These are the people who understand the issue of the nation and try to make the societies better and better every day by overcoming the problem that arises. These parties do not discriminate the citizens based on their religion, class, ages and so on. In fact, every individuals of the nation are united together and given equal opportunities to make the better government by electing the right candidate for the country through casting a vote.

Waterborne Essay Example Pdf - Free Essay Example

What are the application differences of a Polyurethane dispersion coating compared to a solvent based polyurethane and what are the advantages upon each other? A polyurethane coating is a versatile product with many advantages upon other coating systems. A major disadvantage of classical, solvent based polyurethane coatings, are the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in the wet state. New regulations force formulators to keep the VOC content below 350 g/l. Recent developments dealt with this problem. Developers have succeeded in making a polyurethane dispersion in water, eliminating most of the volatile organic solvents. However, the costs of a so called water borne polyurethane are higher than that of a solvent based polyurethane. A question that may arise is whether or not the dispersed polyurethane performs the same way as the classical, solvent based, polyurethanes and whether or not it is worth the money. Besides possible differences in performance, processing techniques may differ. The goal of this investigation is to give an overview of the differences between the performance, processing and cost between a polyurethane dispersion and solvent based polyurethanes. The major formulations of both types will be summarized and compared to find the best coating. The chemistry of PU A polyurethane (PU) is a polycondensation reaction product of an isocyanate with a monomer. The isocyanate must have at least two functional groups and the monomer at least two alcohol groups. The catalyst for the reaction can be a tertiary amine like dimethylcyclohexylamine or organic metallic materials like dibutyltin dilaturate. The condensation of a cyanate with a hydroxyl end-group results in a urethane linkage. Both the isocyanate and the hydroxyl alcohol (diol) need to be bi-functional to form polyurethane. The reaction mechanism of the formation of PU catalyzed by a tertiary amine is given by: Figure 1: reaction mechanism of the catalyzed condensation reaction of PU by a tertiary amine Many isocyanates can be used but MDI, aliphatics such as H12MDI, HDI, IPDI and TDI are the most widely used among others. MDI consumption exceed 45% of the total amount of isocyanates used, closely followed by aliphatics (35-40%) and TDI (15%). Whilst the reactivity of the isocyanat e determents the rate of the reaction, the main properties of the PU is devised from the diol. As with the choice of an isocyanate, a wide variety of diols can be used. EG, BDO, DEG, glycerin and TMP are all useable. For hard and weatherable coatings acrylic and polyester polyols tend to be preferred. Polyols with a low molecular weight as the main reactant produces polymer chains with more urethane groups hence a harder and stiff polymer is formed. High molecular weight polyols however produces a more flexible polymer. Also a low functionality long-chain polyol produces soft and flexible PU while short-chain polyols with high functionality makes more cross-linked products which are more rigid. Different types of PU formulations PU coatings can be divided into two main groups, namely into 1 and 2 pack systems (1k and 2k). The 1k system basically contains a dissolved, fully reacted PU whilst a 2k system can contain partially reacted PU and unreacted monomers. Both systems can be solvent-based or waterborne. Furthermore there are several curing (or drying) systems known, each resulting in different performing coatings. Two-component or 2k As mentioned briefly 2k systems are reactive and the primary reaction is of isocyanate with polyols. The main disadvantage of a 2k system is the pot-life. When the isocyanate is added the mixture begins to react and hardens. However, the main advantage of a reactive system is the outstanding mechanical performance. Because the PU particles react and crosslink, an endless polymer forms which is hard and chemical resistant. Two-component systems include solvent-based and waterborne formulations. Solvent-based 2kcoatings are obtained by mixing aliphatic isocyanates with polyester polyols or blends of polyester with acrylic grades. Formulations like these cure by partially physical drying and cross-linking with the isocyanate. Solvent-based 2k formulations are mostly used in the automotive and aviation industry as a finish coating. Waterborne 2k coatings are formulated with dispersible isocyanates and water-dispersible polyols such as polyacrylates or emulsifiable polyesters . The most commonly used isocyanate is a HDI trimer but IPDI trimers can also be used. Aromatic isocyanates cannot be used in waterborne formulations because they react dangerously with water. Dispersible isocyanates can be used as such or can, by partial reaction with a dispersible polyol, be emulsified, making it easier to mix. However some waterborne systems still need up to 10% co-solvent to form a homogeneous finish. These formulations cure by partially physical drying and by cross-linking but can also be thermally cured at temperatures ranging from 20 ËÅ ¡C to 80 ËÅ ¡C. Waterborne 2k systems are frequently used as protective coatings in the transportation, machinery and furniture industry. Their high flexibility also makes it possible for use on polymeric and wooden surfaces. One-component or 1k A 1k PU coating consists of partially reacted polymers (prepolymers) which are liquid at room temperature. These prepolymers are synthesized by reacting MDI, HDI or TDI with a polyester or polyester polyols. The main advantage of a one-component system is that no mixing is required and pot life is no issue. 1k systems are storage stable with a shelf life of up to six months. However a disadvantage is that most 1k formulations are not cross-linked making them less hard and vulnerable to solvents. 1k formulations are broadly used as maintenance and repair coatings for their ease in application and mechanical behavior. They are used for painting steel constructions such as bridges and other large steel structures where corrosion protection is needed. Solvent-based 1k coatingsare obtained through reacting aromatic or aliphatic isocyanates (MDI and IPDI) with polyesters or polyether polyols. This reaction forms high molecular weight linear PUs. Commonly used additives are cha in extenders. Curing occurs by evaporation of the solvent but 1k systems can be formulated so they cure by oxidation, with moisture and even by UV-radiation. Waterborne 1k or better known as PUDs are fully reacted polyurethane systems. The PU particles have hydrophilic groups in their backbone and are maximum one tenth of a micrometer in length, dispersed in water. This makes a both chemically and colloidal stable mixture (Figure 2). A PUD can also be formed by incorporating a surfactant. PUDs are currently very popular because they are environmentally friendly, but still being able to perform reasonably. Because PUDs are relatively expensive they are mixed with acrylic grades to lower the material costs. However more acrylic means less hardness. 1k waterborne formulations can cure physical, by oxidation and by UV-radiation. There are formulations at the market containing no solvent. These coatings find their application in the building sector. To obtain solvent-free formulations MDI is reacted with polyether or oil-modified polyester polyols. To obtain higher hardness chain extenders and catalysts are added to the formulation. Drying systems As mentioned above the way a coating cures strongly effects the final performance of the coating. The way a coating dries is dependant of its formulation. A 2k system can cure on air, by heat and under influence of UV. One-component systems can cure physically, with moisture, by oxidation, under influence of UV-radiation and by heat. Physical drying basically means that the solvent containing the PU evaporates, leaving the PU to form a film. A major disadvantage of this way of drying is that there is no cross-linking between the PU particles. This drying mechanism affects some one component systems. UV curing coatings can be formulated as solvent-based or waterborne and both 1k and 2k. In a UV-curing formulation the catalyst is inactive in absence of UV-radiation; this behavior is seen with a photo-initiator. When UV-radiation hits the catalyst it unblocks and becomes active and initiates the curing. A schematic representation of this process is shown in Figure 3. UV-cur ing coatings are predominantly used as automobile finishes as it has unmatchable hardness and gloss. Oxidative drying is a process which is used with a special type of 1k PU coatings. So called oil-modified PUs (OMU) are synthesized through an addition reaction of isocyanate with a hydroxyl bearing, fatty acid modified ester (TDI). To obtain higher densities more isocyanate can be added but this means that more solvent is needed, as much as 550 g/l (not VOC-compliant). Natural oils like linseed oil can be used as the diol and a mineral spirit can be used as the solvent. An OMU can be solvent- or water-based and cures by reacting with air surrounding the coating. The fatty acid groups of the oil (attached to the PU) form cross-links with each other by mean of oxidation. OMUs have better mechanical and weathering properties than unmodified, non-reactive alkyds, but reactive PU coatings are superior. OMUs are predominantly used as wood finishes for their distinctive yellowi ng/aging which some formulators prefer. Moisture curing PU (MCPU) coatings are formulated with NCO-terminated PU prepolymers. The NCO groups react with atmospheric moisture which produces a amine-group. This further reacts with remaining isocyanate to form highly cross-linked urea-networks. MCPU coatings have superior hardness, strength and stiffness. Even though the coating is cross-linked a MCPU has a relatively high flexibility. Because a MCPU cures with moisture this strongly affects the storage stability. Thermal curing formulations are based on deactivated isocyanate mixed with a polyol. This semi-one-component formulation is stable at room temperature but when heated (100-200 ËÅ ¡C) the deactivated isocyanate unblocks and reacts with the polyol, the same way as a reactive 2k coating. The isocyanates (aromatic or aliphatic) all have one active hydrogen. For blocking the isocyanate caprolactam is mostly used. A different way of blocking the isocyanate is creatin g uretidinedione or dimer links. Thermally cured coatings find their main usage on surfaces which need to withstand excessive heating and cooling cycles. An overview of all the PU coatings with their distinctive curing system is shown in Figure 5. Testing the coatings To make a comparison of different types of PU coatings the performance of a coating need to be tested. Because of the broad application possibilities of PU coatings and because of the need of a wide variety of different characteristics, the comparison will be narrowed down to floor coatings. Floor coatings are tested on mar and scuff resistance, taber abrasion, chemical resistance, color and KÃÆ' ¶nig hardness. Because thermal cured coatings are not applicable as flour coatings these formulations will not be used in the comparison. Moisture curedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Mar and scuff resistance Mar and scuff resistance or simply put resistance to marking can be measured by several methods. One of them is the pendulum method which consists of a pendulum arm with a hard-wood block attached to the end. The weighted block hits the coated panel four times and the average 20ËÅ ¡ gloss of the coating is measured before and after the test. The results are expressed as percentage 20ËÅ ¡ gloss retained and visual assessment of the panel (scratching and scuffing). Taber abrasion To test taber abrasion can be described as wear resistance. To measure abrasion resistance an arm is weighted with 1000 gram weights and attached to abrasive wheels (mostly consist of minerals). The arm makes 1000 cycles over the substrate. The initial weight of the coated substrate is compared with the weight after the test. The results are expressed in milligrams removed. Chemical resistance Chemical resistance is determined of dry films using eight household stains and chemicals. Test chemicals include MEK, olive oil, several cleaning chemicals, ethanol, white vinegar, water and 7% of ammonia solution. The chemicals are applied on a two-ply square towel on the test film, completely saturating the towel. The towel with the liquid is immediately covered with a watch glass. After a period of two hours the stains are removed and the panel is rinsed and dried. The impact of the chemicals on the coating is investigated immediately after the rinsing. The surface is investigated on discoloration, blistering and softening. Each chemical is rated on a scale of 1 to 10 with 10 being no effect. Color An important property to investigate of coatings is color, especially when evaluating PU coatings, because PUs tend to yellow, especially OMUs. The initial yellowness index of a coating is measured and after a period of lighting. The difference between initial and final yellowness index is also measured as the Delta E. When this value is below 1.0 the color difference is insignificant. The higher the value the more yellow the coating has become in a period of time. KÃÆ' ¶nig hardness KÃÆ' ¶nig hardness is a method used for measuring the hardness of a coating. With this method a pendulum rocks back and forth over the coated substrate. The coating will dampen the rocking motion, slowing the pendulum down. The results with the KÃÆ' ¶nig hardness are expressed in seconds; the longer the pendulum rocks, the harder the coating. Solvent-based vs. waterborne For this comparison different formulations of each type are reviewed. Solvent-based 2k, solvent-based OMU and 2k UV are compared with waterborne OMU, 2k and a PUD/acrylic mixture. Data from sb OMU, PUD/acrylic, wb OMU and wb 2k is obtained from the article Oil-modified urethanes for clear wood finishes: Distinction or extinction by Richard A. Caldwell from Reichhold. Data from sb 2k, 2k UV and 100% PUD formulations are obtained from several commercially available coatings [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦]. Some values may differ because of the objective opinion of the investigator and the formulation. Some values are projected as expected where data was missing. These projections include chemical resistance of sb 2k, 2k UV and 100% PUD formulations. The taber abrasion resistance at 500 cycles of the wb OMU coating is multiplied by a statistically calculated value, using know data from other formulations, to obtain a value with 1000 cycles. As shown in Graph 1 a 2k UV coating has super ior mechanical properties (KÃÆ' ¶nig hardness and taber abrasion). This is because a 2k UV coating has a high amount of cross-linking. This can be related to the 20ËÅ ¡ gloss of the dried film. High gloss usually means high cross-linkage. The solvent-based 2k formulations perform comparable with 2k UV coatings but are slightly less cross-linked as shown in the gloss and the hardness. The waterborne formulations are all significantly softer but tend to be slightly more mar and scuff resistant. However the initial gloss values of these waterborne coatings are somewhat lower. It can also be found that the 1k OMU formulations perform better than most non-reactive coatings. However they tend to yellow and perform worse than reactive (2k) coatings. This shows that the oxidative cross-linking cannot be compared with the reactive cross-linking of 2k formulations. It is somewhat surprising that 100% PUD performs comparable with a wb 2k formulation. However the chemical resist ance and the scuff resistance are lower showing the benefits of cross-linking. Conclusion If a hard coating with high gloss is wishful UV cured 2k coatings are the best choice. The best mar and scuff resistance is obtained with waterborne formulations but these show less hardness and chemical resistance. Solvent-based systems have an overall better performance than waterborne systems but VOC regulations restrict the amount of solvents used, causing a lower amount of solids possible. This results in less cross-linking hence less hardness and chemical resistance. Even though high VOC content solvent-based coatings perform better, VOC regulations cause a shift to waterborne formulations which are increasingly performing better. During the investigation it became clear that a good comparison between different PU formulations is a nearly impossible task because of the large amount of different possible formulations of each class. Waterborne PU coatings, when properly formulated, can meet the performance of solvent-based coatings, especially when compared with VOC-c ompatible solvent-based coatings but with a higher price. Eventually VOC regulations are further sharpened causing a market shift towards waterborne formulations, making them worth the money.